胡壮麟语言学教程Chapter_2.ppt

1、Chapter 2,Speech Sounds,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Generalization of this chapter: Articulatory（发声） Phonetics (Acoustic) （声学） （语音学） Speech (Auditory) （听觉） Sounds （音位学） （音位） （音位变体） Phonology phonemes (allophones),Chapter 2,2,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Generalization of this chapter: speech organs Articulat

2、ory consonants broad （发声） speech phonetic sounds transcriptions vowels narrow （音位学） Phonological processes Phonology Distinctive features,Chapter 2,3,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.1 Speech production and perception A speech sound goes through a three-step process as shown below. Speaker A Speaker B spee

3、ch speech speech production - transmission - perception Articulatory (acoustic) (auditory) the study of | the study of the physical | concerned with production of | properties of the sounds | the perception speech sounds | produced in speech | of speech sounds,Chapter 2,4,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.2

4、 Speech organs,Chapter 2,5,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.2 Speech organs Lower part breast: lungs, trachea （气管） Middle part (vocal tract) Throat: vocal Adams apple), mandible (下颌骨)，maxilla (上颌骨) Nasal cavities: naso-pharynx Nose and lips,Chapter 2,7,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.2 Speech organs What are the

5、 articulators used in English speech? 1) vocal cords 2) pharynx 3) back of tongue 4) soft palate 5) hard palate 6) tongue tip 7) tongue blade 8) tongue front 9) teeth 10) lips,Chapter 2,8,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.2 Speech organs What kinds of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are (a) tightly

6、closed; (b) wide open; (c) loosely together and vibrating? (a) no sound or inaudible sound symbolized as /?/; (b) voiceless sound such as /h/; (c) voiced sounds such as /d/.,Chapter 2,9,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.2 Speech organs voiceless sound: when the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass thr

7、ough easily. voiced sound: when the vocal folds are close together and the air stream causes them to vibrate.,Chapter 2,10,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.2 Speech organs glottal stop（塞音）: when the vocal folds are totally closed and no air can pass between them. What is a glottal stop? A glottal stop is a

8、 phenomenon in which the vocal cords may be closed tightly so that the air-stream from the lungs is blocked and the air pressure behind them builds up.,Chapter 2,11,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.3 Segments, divergences and phonetic transcription Segment（音段）: the smallest unit of speech sounds appeared i

9、n a word e.g. a-b-o-v-e we have four segments for this word. Divergence（音歧）: a phenomenon in which a letter or a cluster of letters sometimes represents more than one sound when appeared in words. e.g. cough k:f, ghost gust, high hai,Chapter 2,12,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.3 Segments, divergences and

10、 phonetic transcription So we have to use a set of special symbols to transcribe speech sounds. Phonetic transcription（音标）: a system of symbols used for transcribing sounds in language IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet（国际音标） RP: Received Pronunciation（标准发音）- used to be BBC or Oxford English,Chapt

11、er 2,13,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.4 Consonants（辅音） The sound segments are grouped into CONSONANTS and VOWELS. Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. By contrast, a vowel is pro

12、duced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air be perceived.,Chapter 2,14,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Voicing (有声化): pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. Manners of articulation: stop (plosive)（爆破音）, fricative（摩擦音）, med

13、ian approximant（中通音）, lateral approximant（边通音）, affricate（塞擦音）, nasal Places of articulation: bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar（齿槽音）, post-alveolar, palate, velar（软腭音）, glottal（声门音）,Chapter 2,15,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Three main factors that decide a sound of consonant: 1)the participation o

14、f vocal cords (voiced or voiceless) 2)the place of articulation (bilabial, alveolar, dental, etc.) 3)the manner of articulation (stop, fricative, approximant, nasal, etc.),Chapter 2,16,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Chapter 2,17,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Describe the following consonants. i.t: voiceless alve

15、olar plosive/stop ii. d: voiced alveolar plosive/stop iii. m: (voiced) bilabial nasal iv.n: (voiced) alveolar nasal v.l: (voiced alveolar) lateral vi.: voiceless dental (fricative) vii.p: voiceless bilabial (plosive/stop) viii.g: voiced velar plosive/stop ix.h: (voiceless) glottal (fricative) x. : v

16、oiceless post-alveolar fricative,Chapter 2,18,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels（元音） Spreading（扁唇） （圆唇）rounding The position of Vowels in the Tongue,Chapter 2,19,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels cardinal vowels: /i/, /e/, /, /a/, /, /, /o/, /u/ The position of the cardinal vowels（主元音）in the tongue

17、,Chapter 2,20,i,e,a,o,u,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels cardinal vowels: If we imagine that for the production of the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme po

18、ints of a theoretical vowel space: approximation of the articulators beyond this vowel space would involve friction or contact.,Chapter 2,21,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels Monophthong: pure or single vowel, without audible change of quality Table of English Monophthongs,Chapter 2,22,Chapter 2 Sp

19、eech Sounds,2.5 Vowels The position of English monophongs in the tongue,Chapter 2,23,i,e,B:,:,u,i:,u:,:,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels The position of English monophongs in the tongue highrounded half close central half open low front open back,Chapter 2,24,i,e,B:,:,u,i:,u:,:,Chapter 2 Speech So

20、unds,2.5 Vowels Diphthong: a combination of two vowels, involving a single movement of the tongue or a diphthongal glide, such words as way wei, tide taid, how hau, toy tCi, and toe tou/tu. Table of English Diphthongs,Chapter 2,25,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels Triphthong: a combination of three

21、 vowels, involving a double movement of the tongue or a triphthongal glide, such words as wire wai and tower tau,Chapter 2,26,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels The criteria of vowel description: As we have discussed earlier, the distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of a

22、ir-stream. In the production of vowels, there is no obstruction of air as is the case with consonants. Therefore, the description of the vowels cannot be done along the lines of the description of the consonants. To get out of this problem, vowels are normally described with reference to some criter

23、ia.,Chapter 2,27,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels The criteria of vowel description: Four main factors that decide a sound of pure vowel: 1)the shape of the mouth (the degree of the lip-rounding): (rounded or unrounded/spread) 2)the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central or bac

24、k) 3)the height of the tongue raising (high, mid or low) 4) the length of the vowel (long/tense or short/lax),Chapter 2,28,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.5 Vowels The criteria of vowel description: Four main factors that decide a sound of diphthongal vowel: 1)the height and the position of the tongue of

25、the first vowel; 2) gliding（音渡）; 3)closing or centering; and 4) the shape of the mouth for the second vowel,Chapter 2,29,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Describe the following vowels. i.i:high front tense/long (unrounded) vowel ii.u:high back lax/short (rounded) vowel iii.:central lax (unrounded) vowel iv.:

26、low back lax (rounded) vowel v. i:high front lax (unrounded) vowel vi.B:low back long unrounded vowel vii. u:back-high gliding centering vowel viii.ai:front-low gliding closing unrounded vowel,Chapter 2,30,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coarticulation（协同发音）and phonetic transcription Coarticulation (协同发

27、音): a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. Anticipatory coarticulation (逆协同发音): If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the

28、case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation. Perseverative coarticulation (顺协同发音): If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is known as perseverative coarticulation.,Chapter 2,31,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coarticulation（协同发音）and phonetic tr

29、anscription Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as m) precedes an oral vowel (such as A in map), som

30、e of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel A will begin with a somewhat nasal quality.,Chapter 2,32,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coarticulation（协同发音）and phonetic transcription This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To prod

31、uce the following vowel A, the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of A has begun. Similarly, when A is followed by m, as in la

32、mb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of A so that it is ready for the following nasal.,Chapter 2,33,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coarticulation（协同发音）and phonetic transcription Anticipatory Coarticulation effects are far more common than perseverative Coarticulation effects

33、. Note how the lip-positions of the unrounded vowel i: and the rounded vowel u: affect the s in seat and soup respectively. In the production of the s of seat the lips are unrounded, while in the s of soup they are rounded.,Chapter 2,34,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coarticulation（协同发音）and phonetic tr

34、anscription Broad and narrow transcriptions（宽、严音标） When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a BROAD TRANSCRIPTION. Thus the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a NARROW TRANSCRIPTION.,Chapter 2,35,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coart

35、iculation and phonetic transcription Broad and narrow transcriptions（宽、严音标） We have noticed that the vowel a in lamb has some quality of the following nasal and we call this phenomenon NASALIZATION. Then how do we transcribe this phenomenon in IPA symbols? The idea is that the IPA chart contains a s

36、et of DIACRITICS（变音符）for the purpose of transcribing the minute difference between variations of the same sound. To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized, we simply add a curved line to the top of the symbol a, as .,Chapter 2,36,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.6 Coarticulation（协同发音）and phonetic transcr

37、iption Broad and narrow transcriptions（宽、严音标） By the same token, we can use these diacritics for recording many other variations of the same sound. Take p for example, it is ASPIRATED（送气）in peak and UNASPIRATED in speak. This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as

38、 ph, whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as p= for contrast. For most purposes, however, it is not necessary to indicate such variations of a sound every time. And we often use the common symbol r for the more unusual symbol .,Chapter 2,37,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allo

39、phones（音位和音位变体） Minimal pairs（最小配对） Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, whereas other sounds do not. An early approach to the subject used a simple methodology to demonstrate this. It would take a word, replace one sound by anothe

40、r, and see whether a different meaning resulted.,Chapter 2,38,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allophones（音位和音位变体） Minimal pairs（最小配对） For instance, the word tin in English consists of three separate sounds, each of which can be given a symbol in a phonetic transcription, tin. If we replace

41、t by d, a different word results: din. t and d are thus important sounds in English, because they enable us to distinguish tin and din, tie and die, and many more word pairs. So minimal pairs are word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.,Chapter 2,39,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Chapter

42、2,40,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allophones（音位和音位变体） Similarly, i: and i can be shown to be important units too, because they distinguish between beat and bit, bead and bid and many other pairs. This technique, called the MINIMAL PAIRS test, can be used to find out which sound substitut

43、ions cause differences of meaning.,Chapter 2,41,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allophones（音位和音位变体） The method has its limitations as it is not always possible to find pairs of words illustrating a particular distinction in a language, but it works well for English, where it leads to the id

44、entification of over 40 important units. In the earliest approach to phonological analysis, these “important units” are called PHONEMES.,Chapter 2,42,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allophones（音位和音位变体） Phonemes are transcribed using the normal set of phonetic symbols, but within slant lines

45、 instead of square brackets/p/, /t/, /e/, etc. It shows that these units are seen as part of a language, and not just as physical symbols. Some of the minimal pairs for English phonemes are shown in Fig. 2.7 on P56.,Chapter 2,43,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allophones（音位和音位变体） Phoneme (音

46、位): the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive (the difference causing a meaning difference) in a particular language. Allophone (音位变体): any of the different forms of a phoneme, as t in the word stop and th in the word top.,Chapter 2,44,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and al

47、lophones（音位和音位变体） Complementary distribution（互补分布）: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. Representations of allophones in complementary distribution:1) /p/ p=/s_ ph elsewhere 2) /l/

48、l/ V V_,Chapter 2,45,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.8 Phonemes and allophones（音位和音位变体） Free variant（自由变体）: any of the different forms of a phoneme caused by dialect, habit or individual preference, such differences as i: or ai for the word either and as direkn or dairekn for the word direction. A speech

49、sound is called a segment in a word and can be transcribed in “/ /” as a phoneme (phonemic transcription) and in “ ” as a broad phonetic transcription.,Chapter 2,46,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Assimilation（同化） Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the

50、 characteristics of a neighboring sound. Assimilation is often used synonymously with coarticulation. Similarly, there are two kinds of assimilation, regressive（逆）and progressive（顺）assimilations.,Chapter 2,47,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Assimilation（同化） Regressive assimilation

51、: a process in which a following sound influences a preceding sound. Progressive assimilation: a process in which a preceding sound influences a following sound. Assimilation includes devoicing, nasalization, dentalization and velarization. It can occur across syllable or word boundaries. (See P60-6

52、1 for examples.),Chapter 2,48,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Phonological rules Devoicing rule voiced fricative voiceless/ voiceless A voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound. Nasalization rule -nasal +nasal/

53、 +nasal Dentalization rule -dental +dental/ +dental Velarization rule -velar +velar/ +velar Epenthesis rule for the indefinite article n/ V,Chapter 2,49,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Rule ordering（规则顺序） phonological rule for the regular plural forms in English 1) s/-voiced e.g.

54、maps, cakes, knots, etc. z z/+voiced e.g. farms, fans, peoples, etc. iz/sibilant e.g. faces, matches, bridges, etc.,Chapter 2,50,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Rule ordering（规则顺序） phonological rule for the regular plural forms in English 2) a. seats b. beds c. cases /si:t+z/ /bed

55、+z/ /keis+z/ Underlying Form/Representation (UR) N/A N/A i Epenthesis s N/A N/A Devoicing si:ts bedz keisiz Output Surface Form/Representation (SR),Chapter 2,51,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Rule ordering（规则顺序） phonological rule for the past tense forms of the regular verbs in E

56、nglish 1) +consonant coronal（舌尖音） d id/ e.g. tested, headed, etc -continuous -nasal t/ -voiced e.g. hooked, forced, tipped, etc. d elsewheree.g. saved, logged, formed, hauled, etc.,Chapter 2,52,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.9 Phonological processes Rule ordering（规则顺序） phonological rule for the past tens

57、e forms of the regular verbs in English 2) a. hooked b. farmed c. tested /huk+d/ /f:m+d/ /test+d/Underlying Form/Representation (UR) N/A N/A i Epenthesis t N/A N/A Devoicing hukt fB:mdtestid OutputSurface Form/Representation (SR),Chapter 2,53,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.10 Distinctive features Phoneme

58、 is regarded as the minimal or basic unit of speech sounds. However, there are smaller features by which phonemes can be distinctive from each other. Many of the features are binary features because we can group them into two categories: one with and the other without this feature. Binary features have two values or specifications denoted by “+” and “-”.,Chapter 2,54,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,Chapter 2,55,Chapter 2 Speech Sounds,2.10 Distinctive features So the rule for voiceless plosive consonants can be presented as: -voi