浅谈英语委婉语的分类、构成方式及社会功能（英语专业毕业论文） .doc

浅谈英语委婉语的分类、构成方式及社会功能-abstract as an indispensable and natural part of english language, english euphemisms have existed for a long time. the appearance of everything, including euphemism, has its reasons. the emergence of english euphemisms has a close relation with language taboos and religion. since english euphemisms play an important role in social communication, they worth careful and thorough study. this paper will mainly deal with the formation, classification and social function of english euphemisms. various methods have been used to form english euphemisms, including phonetic devices, spelling devices, vocabulary devices, grammatical devices and rhetorical devices. the paper also tries to classify english euphemisms according to the content. english euphemisms are almost employed in all fields of life such as in the field of daily life, in the field of education, in the field of law, in the field of politics, and in the field of commerce and industry.from the day they came into being, english euphemisms play the role of social lubricator. without them, the world will be full of conflicts and the social order will be in chaos. the function of english euphemisms is diversified. besides evasion, english euphemisms now are also used for politeness, elegance and disguise.key words english euphemism; formation; classification; social function 【摘 要】 委婉语是人类语言中的一种普遍现象，其存在的历史相当悠久。任何事物的出现总有其原因，委婉语当然也不例外。委婉语的出现是与语言禁忌息息相关的。英语委婉语在交际中起着十分重要的作用，因此值得深入的学习和研究。本文主要从英语委婉语的构成方式、分类和社会功能来进行阐述。英语委婉语的构成方式多种多样包括语音手段、语法手段、修辞手段等。论文还试图根据英语委婉语的内容对其应用范围进行归类。英语委婉语涉及生活的方方面面，既有日常生活中的委婉语又有教育和法律委婉语以及政治委婉语与商业和工业领域委婉语。从其诞生之日起，英语委婉语就肩负着社会润滑剂这项重任。可以预见如果没有委婉语人际交往中将会增加许多摩擦和矛盾。英语委婉语具有多样化的功能。除了避讳，它还具有礼貌、求雅、掩饰等功能。【关键字】 英语委婉语;构成方式;分类;社会功能1. introductioneuphemisms have existed for a long time. the word “euphemism” comes from the greek word “euphemia”. the prefix “eu-” means “good”, the stem “pheme” means “speech” or “saying”. many people have defined euphemism. here are some of the definitions.(1) “(example of the) use of pleasant, mild or indirect words or phases in place of more accurate or direct ones.”1(2) “a polite word or expression that you use instead of a more direct one to avoid shocking or upsetting someone.”2 (3) “a less direct word used instead of one that is harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.”3 (4) “substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; expression thus substituted.”4(5) “a polite word or expression that people use to talk about something unpleasant or embarrassing, such as death and sex.”5(6) “a euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience, or of some third party.”6just as the above definitions state, some harsh, blunt, unpleasant or offensive things in life should not be stated directly and truthfully in certain occasions. under these circumstances, some better-sounding names should be used. euphemism is a part of human language as well as a psychological and cultural phenomenon of different nations. the usage of english euphemism reflects ethics and behavioral code of people in english-speaking countries. from the day it came into being, euphemism functions as the lubricator of communication. thus it enables people to live in harmony and makes conversations smooth and successful. the following parts hold a discussion on the origin, formation, classification and social function of english euphemisms.2. the origin of english euphemisms“euphemism is the linguistic reflection of social psychology and a product of social and cultural environment.”7 “in western nations, the usage of euphemisms in early times originated from religion or admires and dread of gods.”8its earlier emergence had a close relation to language taboos and religion.in ancient society, as the level of productivity and science was very low, people failed to explain the essence of some natural phenomena such as lightening and thunder. they came to believe that there were some supernatural powers, or the existence of devils and gods that controlled their lives and even the whole world. they dared not to mention the names of the devils and gods directly, just as the idiom goes “speak of the devil and he appears.” thus, language taboos came into being. to find a solution to this problem, people used other names that is, euphemisms to substitute the names of those things they feared in circumstances that they had to speak of them. because of the usage of euphemisms, people felt that they were somewhat distant from what they were afraid of and their safety, happiness, health and good luck were guaranteed. though it is a rather old religious custom, it still exerts a strong influence on modern western nations.-as we all know, the majority of the population of english-speaking countries believes in god consciously or unconsciously, and they think that god exists everywhere and has unlimited power. words related to god and religion can only be used in religious ceremonies. since the name of god is regarded as the avatar of god itself, people usually use “the lord” to replace it. besides, jesus is euphemized as “gee”, “jeepers”, “jiminy”, “cricket” or “criminet”; and “the deuce”, “the dickens” or “old nick” substitutes “the devil”. 3. the formation of english euphemismsvarious devices are employed to form english euphemisms.3.1 phonetic devicesphonetic distortion is a common means to form english euphemism. for example, people use “gad”, “goodness”, “gosh”, and “golly” to replace “god” and use “cripes” to replace “christ” in order to show respect. assonance is another important means to form euphemisms. for example, “ a coffin shop is euphemized as a coffee shop, for coffin and coffee have similarity in sound.”9 rhyming slang is also employed to form english euphemisms. slang is very informal and has local color. it was originally used by working people. now, some slang words have been accepted in standard english and used as euphemisms. for example, “bristol cities” is for “breasts”; “grasp and grunt” is rhyming slang for “cunt” and “tea leaf” is for “thief”.3.2 spelling devices3.2.1 abbreviationssome euphemisms are abbreviations. for example, “vd” is for “venereal disease”; “bo” is for “body odor”; “bm” substitutes “bowel movement”; “wc” substitutes “water closet”; “od” replaces “to take an overdose”, etc.3.2.2 reinterpretation of initialsreinterpretation of initials is also used to form english euphemisms. for example, “hot and cold” is a roundabout expression for “heroin and cocaine”. “hot” and “heroin” have the same initial “h” and “cold” and “cocaine” have the same initial “c”, but “hot and cold” sounds less accurate and indirect.3.3 vocabulary devices 3.3.1loan wordsborrowing is the use of loanwords in order to avoid taboos. “it is thought that loanwords have few negative meaning and sensitive associations, so that they sound more neutral and pleasant.” 10here is a list of direct expressions and their respective euphemisms.“english french latin smell scentstink odorfat rotundsick/ill indisposed lie prevaricatespit expectoratesweat perspire” 11 as we all know, in 43 a.d. roman empire conquered england and brought latin to england and latin became official language in england. after the norman conquest in 1066, french became the governmental language in england. but french and latin were only spoken by the upper classes, and among the low classes english was spoken. the upper classes held the view that words used by themselves were superior to those used by the low classes. so they used french or latin words to replace unpleasant english words. later people accepted the view that french and latin words are more euphemistic than english words.3.3.2using uplifting wordsuplifting words can make one feel happier or more hopeful so they are used quite frequently in modern english as an important means to euphemize things related to the humble social class. the main purpose of using these euphemisms is to make menial jobs sound decent. for example, people replace “waiters” or “waitresses” by “the dining room attendants”, “landscape worker” by “landscape architect”, “garbage man” by “sanitary engineer”, and substitute “butcher” with “meat technologist”. generally speaking, in forming euphemism the rule of using words that are easy on the ears is observed for the purpose of consolation. through using uplifting words, the embarrassing facts are embellished and no longer unpleasant.33.3using vague words or expressionsin modern western countries, vague words or expressions are used in almost all the fields. “if a neighboring girl has a child before marriage, people will comment like this: she has an accident. the word accident is very vague. if a person came across a disaster and died, people will also use accident to describe his situation. they may say: he has met with an accident.” 12in school a student may say to a teacher: “sorry! i have to do my business” when he wants to go to the washing room. besides, “a man of bad taste” is called “a man of doubtful taste”; and “homosexual” is replaced by “queer”. “it is no wonder that euphemism is named weasel words.”13 3.3.4 using country namesnames of some countries are used to substitute uncomfortable things. for example, “dutch courage” replaces “weak courage”, that is, courage that comes from drinking alcohol; and “dutch uncle” is for “unpleasant relative”. we all know that there was a war between britain and dutch in 17th century. from then on, hatred existed among people in these two nations. and englishmen used every chance to make joke of dutch. besides dutch, france is also used to form euphemisms like “french novels” for “porn novels” and “french letters” for “condom”. and people use “french devices/methods” or simply “frenchise” to replace methods of birth control. people in britain banter french because they were once ruled by it.-3.4 grammatical devicesmore and more linguists become to notice euphemisms formed through grammatical devices. such euphemisms are used by speakers with a certain purpose. only through the context, can listeners figure out speakers special intention.3.4.1 using the past tensein written english the past tense is mostly used to express an action or a fact happened in a certain point of time in the past. but in oral english, the past tense can replace the present tense to make the meaning of the sentences sounds more polite and mild. (1) do you want me to help you? (2) did you want me to help you?(3) i wonder if you can do me a favor. (4) i wondered if you could do me a favor.sentences (1) and (3) use the present tense and sentences (2) and (4) use the past tense, and they are all grammatically right. but sentences (2) and (4) sound more pleasant, for they mean that what the speakers say happened in the past, so the listeners will not feel embarrassed if they have different answers from the speakers at the time being.(5) wouldnt it be better for us to start off a little earlier tomorrow?(6) this is something i should advise you not to do.by using the past tense of model auxiliary verbs, the above sentences put forward a polite proposal instead of a harsh one.3.4.2 using the subjunctive moodthe subjunctive mood in english is mainly used to express doubt, wishes, or possibility. when used in spoken english, one can achieve a better communication effect than with indicative mood or imperative mood. here are some examples:(7) if i were you, i would not go there.(8) if he be found guilty, his membership would be suspended.(9) it is essential that he recognize his fault.3.4.3 using the passive voicein english, the passive voice is used to avoid mentioning the doer, especially when expressing criticism. here are two examples:(10) it is generally considered not acceptable to act that way.(11) this book was not well written.in sentence (10), the passive voice is tactfully used not to indicate who acts that way. in sentence (11), the speaker does not mention who is the writer in order not to hurt the person concerned.3.4.4 using parenthesesparentheses are also used to form euphemisms. and a parenthesis can be a word, a phrase or a sentence, such as, “i think”, “i guess”, “im afraid”, “i suppose”, “i wonder”, “it seems”, and “it is said”. they are used to make a statement less direct or less strong. here are some examples:(12) the man, it seems, is the one who lives next door to tim.(13) this, i think, is a very good way to improve your english study.with “it seems” and “i think” the two sentences sound more modest and less righteous.3.4.5 using “please” out of kindness and politeness, the word “please” is used as a euphemistic device. examples:(14) no photos, please.(15) close the door, please.(16) children, please! i am trying to work.in sentence (14), “please” is employed on a sign to say that something is not allowed politely. sentence (15) uses “please” as a polite way of asking somebody to do something. sentence (16) employs “please” as a mild criticism, to ask somebody to stop behaving badly.3.4.6 using tag questionsa phrase such as “isnt it?”, “wont it”, or “doesnt she” is added to the end of a sentence to make it a question or to ask you to agree with the above statement politely. examples:(17) lets go fishing this afternoon, shall we?(18) turn on the light for me, will you?3.5 rhetorical devicessome euphemisms are invented by rhetorical means as follows.3.5.1 using metaphorin english, many euphemisms themselves are vivid and popular metaphors, so it is necessary to find out what “metaphor” means. a metaphor employs a word or a phrase to indicate something different from the literal meaning. people seldom say “he died” but “he went to sleep forever” or “he went to his long home”. here, “go to sleep forever” and “go to ones long home” are both metaphors and euphemisms. more examples are: (19) he is hamlet.(20) his plan is castle in the air.(21) john is carrying coals to newcastle.sentence (19) means “he is indecisive”, sentence (20) means “his plan is daydream”, and sentence (21) has the same meaning with “john is wasting time and energy”. euphemisms created by this way also appear in literary works. here is an example: (22)“therefore it is better to be a guest of the law, which though conducted by rules, does not interfere too with a gentlemans private affairs.”14 in sentence (22), “to be a guest of the law” means to “be in prison”, but the former is a pleasant substitution. soapy would rather spend his winters in prison than get some help from charity organizations, for if he wants to get help from charities, his private affairs will be interfered. 3.5.2 using understatementfor the sake of politeness and pleasantness, people often use another formation called understatement, which, is not to state something fully or adequately. understatement, as the word suggests, is “a statement that is not strong enough to express how good, bad, impressive etc something really is.”15 “understatement achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately understating it.” 16“understatement is usually divided into litotes and meiosis. litotes is understatement by using a negative statement instead of a positive one”17. examples: (23) she is very ugly. - she is not particularly good-looking. (24) he was quite rich. -he was a man of no mean wealth. in sentence (23), “not particularly good-looking” is more neutral and vague than “ugly”, so the employment of this euphemism successfully avoids annoying the person concerned. sentence (24) has something to do with personal affairs. westerners dont like others to talk about their private affairs. wealth belongs to ones privacy, so it is more polite to use a roundabout way to talk about it when you have to.“meiosis is merely understatement without the use of negatives”18. examples: (25) her daughter is in prison. -her daughter lives under the governments expense.(26) i cant promise. -sorry, this is in fact more than i can promise. “prison” in sentence (25) is an unpleasant word. general speaking, people are sensitive to the word “prison” if one is in prison, you had better avoid mentioning “prison” in front of his relatives. sentence (26) is a refusal. when you refuse someone, indirect words will get a better result, for they will not make him lose face.by using understatements, the speakers do not seem to be so cruel to others whom they speak something upsetting to.3.5.3 using metonymymetonymy is another very useful rhetorical means to form english euphemisms. it uses the name of one thing to substitute that of another. by using it, some unpleasant expressions can be avoided. metonymy can be further divided into the following.() substituting the typical characteristics of a person for the personfor example,(27) gray hairs should be respected. in the above sentence, “gray hairs” is employed to replace “old people”, for gray hair is one of the typical characteristics of old people. since “old” is a taboo in english-speaking countries people express it with euphemistic words. () substituting the whole for the partfor example,(28) she has a good chest .in sentence (28), “chest” means “breast”. people consider “breast” as an ungraceful word, so they use roundabout way to mention it.() substituting the tools for the action or the thing for example,(29) during the world war hitler attended to carry fire and sword into every part of the world.in sentence (29), “fire and sword” has the same meaning with “war”. in westerners eyes, fire is the symbol of hope and sword is the symbol of justice