结构工程学和其设计原则和方法--中英文对照.doc

译文：结构工程学和其设计原则和方法1.1 结构工程学和其设计过程一般来说，结构工程学覆盖规划，设计和全部结构的建设。对于钢结构，包括构架，电镀的结构，外壳和受拉结构构成的自立、承重的形式在内。特别是，结构设计的目的为满足所需的用途而作出的安全、经济的结构设计和制图。设计过程的步骤能象下面这样列出：（a） 初步的设计和规划。这包括选用最经济的结构形式和材料。初步的设计经常为了能作比较而被认为有必要。（b）对一个给定类型和布置的建筑物进行详细的设计。这包括：（）建筑物其分析和设计的可行性；（）荷载的估计；（）分析各种可变荷载并进行荷载的组合，确定最不利的设计荷载；（）基础，结构的框架，构件和连接设计；（）最终的布置和详图的准备工作。然后准备的材料表，大量的清单和说明也许能结束概算和投标书的编制。结构设计人员使用他有关结构力学和设计的知识，材料，岩土工程学 ,和实际规范，并且结合他的实际经验而作出令人满意的设计。他从专家处听取劝告，运用设计援助，手册和计算机帮助他下决定并进行复杂的分析。 1.2 结构工程师的性质和角色从上面的所述可推断出工程师的工作实际上是机械的。在建筑物建造过程中，对于下列人就某些场合认为他的位置是起作用的：1、就必要的事请教建筑师的委托人；2、计划和控制整个项目的建筑师聘请顾问；3、顾问进行设计，准备图画和投标书，并进行建筑物的建设监督；4、承包方进行建筑物的建造、装配和设备的安装。另外， 设计员是具有专业设计水平队伍的成员之一：总工程师，项目工程师，设计工程师，计算机职员，技术工程师，以及专家。他必须在队伍里关系很好。一些质量和特性的问题需要结构工程师成功操作的有：对光学，声学的了解和判断，对大的管理的经验和锻炼。他的任务也许可以概括为规划，设计，图画和投标书的准备和建造监督。他决定材料，结构形式和所使用的设计方法。他考虑投标书的可行性，检查、监督、批准建筑物的装配和建造过程。他要对安全负全部责任，必须保证由偶然的原因造成的失败结果在容许范围内。这本书中论述的设计知识结构上工程师工作的一部分。1.3建筑物的分类建筑物主要用于以下目的：（a ）围住空地以便控制环境；（b ）供应人、机器及材料等有安置的场所；（c ）安放和保存材料；（d ）为人、机器及材料的运输跨越间隔。框架建筑物可以根据使用分类为：家庭用途住宅和别墅；商贸用途办事处，银行，贮藏及购物中心等；公共设施学校，医院，体育设施等等；展览性质教堂，剧场，博物馆，休闲中心，体育建筑等；工业用途工厂，仓库，电厂，钢铁厂，制造厂，小型机库等。其他重要的工程学结构有：桥桁架，撑杆，拱以及悬索；塔水塔，塔式建筑物，灯塔等；海上结构石油平台；特殊结构水泥碾磨设施，多层的汽车停车场，无线电望远镜平台，矿山顶部结构等。上述列表中每个种类的结构都能使用各种材料，结构形式或系统建造。工程师常根据从使用的形式或系统分类的钢结构进行使用。这些包括：（a ）单层单跨或多跨结构可能采用桁架，支撑框架或刚性框架；（b ）多层单跨或多跨也许是支撑或刚性框架结构；（c ）空间分隔结构空间甲板，圆屋顶，塔，以及其他等等。空间甲板和现代的圆屋顶是超静定结构。塔也许是静定的空间结构；（d ）受拉结构，悬索结构；（e ）张力蒙皮结构。板和壳型结构，例如钢容器，在这里不被考虑。书中只涉及所挑选的结构的详细设计和设计研究。1.4概念设计，革新和计划设计概念设计是进行选择适当的形式或系统，并在给定的建筑位置作适当的布置。这经常是建筑师独有的特权。最终产生的理想的概念设计应该产生于建筑师，结构及技术工程师等人的共同努力。不过，最伟大的成就往往是有才华的个人做的。例如，下面两个人：fazlur khan高层筒式结构；buckminster fuller-几何圆屋顶。在英国常常是建筑师制出给定建筑物的形式和布置，对于他来说认为是最好的。他的决定基于功能，美学，环境，以及经济上的考虑。然后结构工程师从建筑师处获得信息，进行选择和设计结构形式，但他可能没有在建筑师的最初设计中插手。而往往有一个因素是最主要，并起决定作用的因素,例如，在工业厂房中考虑设备功能的操纵控制需求，但是，在展览建筑中审美是主要的考虑。新颖和创新的建筑总是另人满意的，而我们就是为了这种目的努力。但人开发的建筑形式总是受所使用的材料的可用性和他当时的知识所限制。过去同现在一样，当超出限制时结构一般都失败。经常建筑形式不是新的解决办法，但是是证明好的现有形式并进行正确的选择。以下是最近的结构工程学革新的例子：（a ）分析方法矩阵和有限元法；（b ）设计方法塑性设计，极限状态理论和优化设计；（c ）建筑物形式空间甲板，几何圆屋顶，现代受拉结构，箱式桁架桥，多层悬索结构等。规划也许是概念设计的实际的表达。各种不同的提议被反映在图纸上，比如总体布置，平面图及立面图来满足各种需求，还有透视图来给最终的设计有一个直观的印象。其周围的建筑模型和比例也可能影响设计的最后决定。计划设计的准备和介绍对最后的通过很重要，因为通过往往取决于那些非技术性的人们。另外， 工程师必须考虑结构所用的材料，如钢铁、混凝土、砖石或木材，并做出最适当的选择。需要在概念、计划设计阶段考虑的因素有以下一些方面：（a ）建筑物的位置和其周围环境；（b ）场地及基础的条件；（c ）在建造过程中的天气条件；（d ）材料的有效性；（e ）材料和装配构件往工地的运输；（f ）装配和建造过程中，劳力作工的质量是必需和有效的；（g ）在制作和建造中适当程度的监督；（h ）由疲劳和脆性破坏可能产生的；（i ）测定需要了给针对腐蚀和火的保护措施；（j ）偶然损害的可能性；（k ）完成后必要的维修；（l ）将来破坏的可能性。结构和建造方法形式和类型的最终决定依赖很多因素，往往考虑成本而将其它置之脑后。外文资料：structural engineering，design principles and methods1.1 structural engineering and the design processin general , structural engineering covers planning , design and construction of all structures . for steelwork these include self-supporting and load-bearing forms consisting of frameworks , plated structures, shells and tension structures. in particular the aim of structural design is to produce the design and drawings for a safe and economical structure that fulfills its required purpose. the steps in the design process can be set out as follows .(a) conceptual design and planning . this involves selecting the most economical structural form and materials to be used . preliminary designs are often necessary to enable comparisons to be made.(b) detail design for a given type and arrangement of structure. this includes:( ) idealization of the structure for analysis and design;( ) estimation of loading; ( ) analysis for the various load cases and combinations of loads and identification of the most severe design actions; ( ) design of the foundations , structural frames, elements and connection; ( ) preparation of the final arrangement and detail drawings.the materials list, bill of quantities and specification may then be prepared to enable the estimates and tender documents to be completed .the structural designer uses his knowledge of structural mechanics and design , materials ,geotechnics ,and the codes of practice and combines this with his practical experience to produce a satisfactory design . he takes advice from specialists and makes use of design aids, handbooks and computers to help him in making decisions and to carry out complex analysis.1.2 the qualities and role of the structural engineerthe above description infers that the designers work is mechanical in nature. it is useful to consider his position in building construction where the parties involved are:client who consults an architect about requirements;architect who plans controls the project and engages the consultants;consultants who carry out the design , prepare drawings and tender documents and supervise construction ;contractor who carries out fabrication , construction and installation of equipment.the designer is also a member of a team at design office level consisting of : chief engineer, project engineer, design engineer, computer staff, technician engineers and specialists . he must fit smoothly into the team . some of the qualities and attributes needed by the structural engineer to operate successfully are : flare , sound knowledge and judgment, experience and exercise of great care. his role may be summarized as planning , design , preparation of drawings and tender documents and supervision of construction . he makes decisions about materials , structural form and design methods to be used . he recommends acceptance of tenders , inspects , supervises and approves fabrication and construction . he has an overall responsibility for safety and must ensure that the consequences of failure due to accidental causes are limited in extent .the designs work which is covered , in part , in this book is one portion of a structural engineers work .1.3 classification of structuresstructures are needed for the following purposes :( a ) to enclose space for environmental control ;( b ) to support people , equipment , materials etc at required locations in space ;( c ) to contain and retain materials ;( d ) to span gaps for the transport of people , equipment , materials etc . framed buildings may be classified according to use :domestic houses and flats ;commercial offices , banks , department stores , shopping centers etc ;institutional schools , hospitals , goals etc ;exhibition churches , theatres , museums , leisure centers , sports building etc ;industrial factories , warehouses , power stations , steelworks , manufacturing plant , aircraft hangers etc .other important engineering structures are :bridges truss , girder , arch and suspension ;towers water towers , pylons , lighting towers etc ;offshore structures oil well platforms ; special structures grandstands , multi-storey car parks , radio telescopes , mine head frames etc .each type of structure in the above list can be constructed using a variety of materials , structural forms or systems . the engineer often uses a classification for steel structures based on the form or system used. this gives :( a ) single story single- or multi-bay structures which may be either truss and stanchion frames or rigid frames ;( b ) multi-storey single- or multi-bay structures which may be either braced or rigid frame construction ;( c ) space structures space decks , domes , towers , etc . space decks and modern domes are redundant structures . towers may be statically determinate space structures ; ( d ) tension structures and suspended structures ; ( e ) stressed skin structures . plate and shell type structures , e.g. steel tanks , are not considered here . detail designs and design studies are given in the book for selected structures . 1.4 conceptual design, innovation and planning conceptual design is the function of choosing a suitable form or system or arrangement to meet a given structural situation . this function is often the sole prerogative of the architect . ideally , conceptual design should result from a team effort where architect , civil , structural and service engineers all contribute to the final solution . modern consulting practices take this multi-disciplinary approach to conceptual design . however , the greatest achievements often are made by gifted individuals . for example , to name two individuals :fazlur khan tube system for tall buildings ;buckminster fuller geodesic domes .in the united kingdom it is often the architect who produces the form and arrangement he considers as the best solution to a giver problem . he bases his decision on functional , aesthetic , environmental and economic considerations . the structural engineer is then faced with choosing and designing a structural system that will bring the architects ideas into being and he may be hampered by not having had a hand in the original decisions . any of the factors mentioned may be of paramount importance in arriving at a decision ,for example , in industrial plant , the functional requirement controls, whereas in an exhibition building the aesthetic aspect is a major consideration .novelty and innovation are always desirable and we seem to strive after these goals . it should be realized that man has always exploited the forms construction possible within the limits of the materials available and the state of his knowledge at the time . in the past as well as in the present, structural failures determine when limits are reached . often it is not a new solution that is required but the correct choice and use of a well proved existing structures . the following are instances of recent structural engineering innovation:( a ) analysis matrix and finite element methods; ( b ) design plastic design , limit state theory and optimization ;( c ) construction space decks , geodesic domes and the modern tension structures , box girder bridges , suspended multi-storey buildings etc .planning may be described as the practical expression of conceptual design . the various proposals must be translated into drawings , such as general arrangements consisting of plans and elevations to set out the functional requirements and perspective drawings to give a realistic impression of the finished concept . scale models of the complete structure in its surroundings may be made to assist in making the final decision. the preparation and presentation of planning proposals are very important as the final approval for schemes often rests with nontechnical people.the engineer must also consid