Principle, Concept, Theory原理，概念，理论.docx

principle, concept, theory ?management, administration, leadership ? theory principle concept management, administration, leadership 2 theories, principles and concept ?/doc/52442490/concept-theory-and-principles-management-and-administration-in-tvemohd zulfadly othman, 2011.educational administrators are professionals who have a code of ethics and are licenses by state board of education. thus, their behavior is guided by acceptable standard of practice. such in the case with educational administration is characterized by using a theory to explain and predict phenomena in educational organization. upon closer examination, almost every action a school administration takes is based to some degree on a theory (allan and fred,2004)school administration would most likely flounder without theories to guide them in making choices. thus, theories provide a guiding framework for understanding, predicting and controlling behavior in organizations. theories also contribute to the advancement ofknowledge in the field. theoryin philosophy, theory (from ancient greek theoria, , meaning a looking at, viewing, beholding) refers to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action. theory is especially often contrasted to practice (greek praxis, ) a concept that in its original aristotelian context referred to actions done for their own sake, but can also refer to technical actions instrumental to some other aim, such as the making of tools or houses. theoria is also a word still used in theological contexts. concepts principles theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining, and making predictions about a given subject matter. there are theories in many and varied fields of study, including the arts and sciences. a formal theory is syntactic in nature and is only meaningful when given a semantic component by applying it to some content (i.e. facts and relationships of the actual historical world as it is unfolding). theories in various fields of study are expressed in natural language, but are always constructed in such a way that their general form is identical to a theory as it is expressed in the formal language of mathematical logic. theories may be expressed mathematically, symbolically, or in common language, but are generally expected to follow principles of rational thought or logic. theories are perspectives with which people make sense of their world experiences (stoner et. al., 1995)theory is a systematic grouping of interdependent concepts (mental images of anything formed by generalization from particulars) and principles (are generalizations or hypotheses that are tested for accuracy and appear to be true to reflect or explain reality) that give a framework to, or tie together, a significant area of knowledge.functions of theoriesscattered data are not information unless the observer has knowledge of the theory that will explain relationships. theory is “in its lowest form a classification, a set of pigeonholes, a filing cabinet in which fact can accumulate. nothing is more lost than a loose fact” (homans, 1958) 3 1) 2) 3) in the field of management, then, the role of theory is to provide a means ofclassifying significant and pertinent management knowledge. for example, in the area of designing an effective organization structure, there are several principles that are interrelated and that have a predictive value for managers. the theory of management is grouped into the five functions of management. in sum, there are basically three main reasons why we have to study management theory. first, theories provide a stable focus for understanding what we experience. a theory provides criteria for what is relevant. second, theories enable us to communicate efficiently and thus move into more and more complex relationships with other people. third, theories make it possible indeed, challenge us to keep learning about our world.enable us to communicate efficientlybasis for prediction offuture eventsprovides criteria for what is relevantfunctions of theoriescharacteristics of theorya body of descriptions of knowledge is usually only called a theory once it has a firm empirical basis, i.e., it is consistent with pre-existing theory to the extent that the pre-existing theory was experimentally verified, though it will often show pre-existing theory to be wrong in an exact sense, is supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation, ensuring that it probably is a good approximation if not totally correct, makes predictions that might someday be used to disprove the theory, is tentative, correctable and dynamic, in allowing for changes to be made as new data is discovered, rather than asserting certainty, and is the most parsimonious explanation, sparing in proposed entities or explanations. - - - - principles ( truth /facta principle refers to a fundamental truth. it establishes cause and effect relationship between two or more variables under given situation. they serve as a guide to thought and actions. therefore, management principles are the statements of fundamental truth based on logic which provides guidelines for managerial decision making and actions. these principles are derived: -a) on the basis of observation and analysisb) by conducting experimental studies.a principle is a law or rule that has to be, or usually is to be followed, or can be desirably followed, or is an inevitable consequence of something, such as the laws of nature or the way that a device is constructed. examples of principles a descriptive comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption:a normative rule or code of conduct,a law or fact of nature underlying the working of an artificial device.principle as causethe principle of any effect is the cause that produces it.depending on the way the cause is understood the basic law governing that cause may acquire some distinction in its expression.principle of causality, as efficient causethe efficient cause is the one that produces the necessary effect, as long as the necessary and sufficient conditions are provided.the scientific process generally consists of establishing a cause by analyzing its effect upon objects. in this way, a description can be established to explain what principle brought about the change-effect. for this reason the principle of cause is considered to be a determining factor in the production of facts.the principle of causality states, every event has a cause; i.e., everything that begins to exist must have a cause. it was formulated by aristotle as everything that moves is moved by another. this principle, in conjunction with the principle that an infinite regress is not possible, has been used to argue for gods existence. the principle of causality is often associated with the similar, though distinct, principle of sufficient reason, according to which, there is a reason why everything is the particular way it is rather than some other way.principle as a final causefinal cause is the end, or goal, which guides one to take the necessary actions to obtain it.for that there needs to be an intelligence capable of conceiving the end and realizing that certain actions must be taken to achieve the goal.science does not recognize the finality of the natural causes as a guiding principle of investigation.it is also understood therefore that the principle guides the action as a norm or rule of behavior, which produces two types of principles.principle as lawprinciple as scientific lawlaws physics. laws statistics. laws biological. laws of nature are those that cannot be (or are not) proven explicitly, however we can measure and quantify them by observing the results that they produce.vagueclarification neededprinciple as moral lawit represents a set of values that orientate and rule the conduct of a concrete society. the law establishes an obligation in the individuals conscience that belongs to the cultural field in which such values are accepted. it supposes the liberty of the individual as cause, that acts without external coercion, through a process of socialization.principle as a juridic lawit represents a set of values that inspire the written norms that organize the life of a society submitting to the powers of an authority, generally the state. the law establishes a legal obligation, in a coercive way; it therefore acts as principle conditioning of the action that limits the liberty of the individuals.principle as axiom or logical fundamentprinciple of sufficient reasonthis is based on the truth or intelligibility of the being. the being has an identity and is intelligible, in virtue that it is. (the intelligibility is the identity of the being with intelligence.) that in virtue of which the being is intelligible, is called the reason or fundament of being. here is the ontological principle: every being has enough reason. without this enough reason, the identity with oneself would be lost, becoming a non-being and therefore nothing. if a being lacked enough reason, of explication, it wouldnt be intelligible, conceiving itself as an absurd unreal non-being.principle of identitythis comes in consequence from the characteristic of identity of the being. the being is the being, and whoever denies that statement would be against the previously exposed. however, saying what is, is what is would seem, as a trial, merely analytical (a = a), but one realizes that in every sentence there is a direct relation between the predicate and the subject. to say the earth is round, corresponds to a direct relation between the subject and the predicate. taking this to the sentence the being is the being, we realize the principle of identity that the being possesses.principle of contradictionone thing cant be and not be at the same time, under the same aspect. example: it is not possible that in exactly the same moment it rains and doesnt rain (in the same place). see law of noncontradictionprinciple of excluded middlethe principle of the excluding third or principium tertium exclusum is a principle of the traditional logic formulated canonically by leibniz as: either a is b or a isnt b. it is read the following way: either p is true, or its denial p is. it is also known as tertium non datur (a third (thing) is not). classically it is considered to be one of the most important fundamental principles or laws of thought (along with the principles of identity, no contradiction and sufficient reason). see law of excluded middle.characteristics of principles5 “” management and administration is a discipline refers to that branch of knowledge which is connected to study of principles and practices of basic administration. it specifies certain code of conduct to be followed by the manager and also various methods for managing resources efficiently. there are five characteristics of principles in term of management:universal applicable to all kinds and level of organizations business & non-business. every organization must make best possible use by the use ofmanagement principlesflexible dynamic guidelines and not static rules. they can be modified as per the requirements of the situation. modification and improvement is a continuous phenomenoncause & effect relationships indicate cause and effect relationship between related variables. they indicate what will be the consequence or result of certain actionsinfluencing human behavior directed towards regulating human behavior so that people can give their best to the organization. concerned with integrating efforts and harmonizing them towards a goal.equal importance no particular principle has greater importance than the other they are all required together for the achievement oforganizational goalsimportance of the principles in management following are the main importance of the principles in management. improves understanding from the knowledge of principles managers get indication on how to manage an organization. the principles enable managers to decide what should be done to accomplish given tasks and to handle situations which may arise in management. these principles make managers more efficient. direction for training of managers principles ofmanagement provide understanding of management process what managers would do to accomplish what. thus, these are helpful in identifying the areas of management in which existing & future managers should be trained. role of management management principles makes the role of managers concrete. therefore these principles act as ready reference to the managers to check whether their decisions are appropriate. besides these principles define managerial activities in practical terms. they tell what a manager is expected to do in specific situation. guide to research in management the body of management principles indicate lines along which research should be undertaken to make management practical and more effective. the principles guide managers in decision making and action. the researchers can examine whether the guidelines are useful or not. anything which makes management research more exact & pointed will help improve management practice.concept : concept : concept : concept : concept : concepta concept (abstract term: conception) is a cognitive unit of meaningan abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a unit of knowledge, built from other units which act as a concepts characteristics. a concept is typically associated with a corresponding representation in a language or symbology such as a single meaning of a term.there are prevailing theories in contemporary philosophy which attempt to explain the nature of concepts. the representational theory of mind proposes that concepts are mental representations, while the semantic theory of concepts(originating with freges distinction between concept and object) holds that they are abstract objects. ideas are taken to be concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily appear to the mind as images as some ideas do. many philosophers consider concepts to be a fundamental ontological category of being. (, , , ) “” (, ) “” 3 “” () characteristics of conceptconcepts share a number of characteristics(antia, 1999)in general concepts are