AppliedLinguisticsanditsresearchmethods应用语言学研究方法.doc

Applied Linguistics and its research methods （何广铿）Applied Linguistics and its research methodsn I. Course Overview n . Types of Research in FLL and FLT n . How to Select a Topic for Researchn . Some Procedures for Data collection n . Surveyn . Classroom observation and case studiesn . Experiment Method n . Data Analysisn . Doing ResearchI. Course Overview1. Course Name: Research Methods in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching2. Why this course? 1) Problems found in the contributions to the key journals of FLT 2) A preparatory course for B.A. thesis writing3. Course Objectives: 1) To help learners understand research in FLL and FLT so that they can view it critically 2) To train the learner to become educational researchers4. Course Materials:1) Required Nunan, D. 1992Research Methods in Language Learning. CUP. 刘润清，1999外语教学中的科研方法北京：外语教学与研究出版社 何广铿，2002英语教学研究：理论和实践广州：高等教育出 Papers from Journals.2) Recommendedn Brown, J.D. 1988. Understanding Research in Second Language Learning. CUP.n Wallace, M.J 1998. Action Research for Language Teachers. CUP.n 林连书. 2001. 应用语言学实验方法, 广州：中山大学出版社.n 马广惠, 2003. 外国语言学及应用语言学统计方法. 西安: 西北农林科技大学出版社.5. Requirements:1) Reading2) Class discussion3) Classroom exam (write a review article)6. Methods for the Course:1) Reading2) Discussion3) Reporting4) Lecturing. Types of Research in FLL and FLT 1. L1, L2 and FL2. What is research?1) Richards et als definition:n the study of an event, problem or phenomenon using systematic and objective methods, in order to understand it better and to develop principles and theories about it.2) Nunans definition:n a systematic process of inquiry consisting of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, (3) analysis and interpretation of data.3. Research in FLL and FLTn Systematic process of inquiry into the problems of FLT and FLL. It consists 3 components, i.e. problems, questions or hypotheses; data; and analysis and interpretation of data. 4.Types of Research in FLL and FLT1) Qualitative vs quantitative何广铿 P.85 表5-1 定性方法和定量方法比较定性方法定量方法1. 自然观察2. 现象学观点：“站在活动者本人的角度去了解人类行为。” 3. 归纳4. 综合5. 描述性6. 操纵和控制7. 逻辑实证主义观点：“对社会现象事实和原因的了解无需考虑个人的主观状态。” 8. 演绎9. 分析10. 推断性（引自：桂诗春，宁春岩 1997）Qualitative vs quantitativeQualitative researchQuantitative research1. Naturalistic and uncontrolled observation2. Concerned with understanding human behaviour from the actors own frame of reference 3. inductive4. synthetic5. descriptive1. Obtrusive and controlled measurement2. Seeks facts or causes of social phenomena without regard to the subjective states of the individuals 3. deductive4. analytic5. inferential2) Chaudrons classification(1) Psychometric (experimental)n Psychometric investigations seek to determine language gains from different methods and materials through the use of the experimental method(2) Interaction analysisn Interaction analysis in classroom settings investigates such relationships as the extent to which learner behaviour is a function of teacher-determined interaction, and utilizes various observation systems and schedules for coding classroom interactions.(3) Discourse analysisn Discourse analysis analyses classroom discourse in linguistic terms through the study of classroom transcripts which typically assign utterances to predetermined categories.(4) Ethnographyn Ethnography seeks to obtain insights into the classroom as a cultural system through naturalistic, uncontrolled observation and description. ACase study 3) Browns (1) Primary a. Surveyclassification BStatistical (2) Secondary b. Experimental Secondary researchkind of research based on secondary sources (e.g. books, paper about lg. learning written by other scholars).n Primary researchresearch derived from the primary source.4) Action research Action research is a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social (including educational situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of a. their own social or educational practices b. their understanding of these practices, and c. the situations (and institutions) in which these practices are carried out. (Kemmis & Taggart, 1982:5) 5. Types of research in this course1) Observation(1) Open observation(2) Participant observation2) Survey (1) Interview (2) Questionnaire3) Case study4) Experimental (1) Single group designs (2) Design using control groups5) Action research. How to Select a Topic for Research 1. Sources for general questions1) From ones experience and interests (1) Rubins and Sterns Research n Certain people appeared to be endowed with abilities to succeed, others lacked those abilities. This observation led Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) to describe “good” language learners in terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies. Rubin (Rubin and Thompson 1982) later summarized fourteen such characteristics. Good language learners find their own way, taking charge of their learning. organize information about language. are creative, developing a “feel” for the language by experimenting with its grammar and words. make their own opportunities for practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom. learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word. use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has been learned. make errors work for them and not against them. use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first language, in learning a second language. use contextual cues to help them in comprehension. learn to make intelligent guesses(2) Baileys Research ( S and S p.47)n Bailey (1983) recorded in a diary her own experiences of learning French as a foreign language. She noticed evidence of competitiveness and anxiety in her writing, which raised questions in her mind about whether such feelings were facilitative or not. She then related these experiences to other literature dealing with competitiveness and anxiety in second language learning. Teachers, similarly, may wish to keep diaries of things observed in a language lesson or of any student behaviors that seem to have some effect on language learning. (3) Wang Qiang王蔷等 (2001, 2002) (4) Yang Yang & Peng Jinxiu杨阳、彭锦秀（2004）2. Considerations in Selecting topics1) You should have a personal interest in the topic you select.2) The topic should be important and should make a difference in some aspect of Al.3) It is more exciting to explore topics that may lead to new information.4) You have enough time to complete the topic.5) The difficulty of the topic should be considered.2) From others research(1) Qi LuXias research (亓鲁霞的研究) (2) Nie Yuehua聂越华（2004） (3) Feng Jing冯晶（2005） 3. Topic selection by literature review and analysis of feasibility1) Review all possible literature(1) Functions of LRn The function of LR. is to provide background information on the research questions, and to identify what others have said and/or discovered about the question so that your cut-off point is clear.(2) Places for sources of information A. Scholarly books (e.g. Celce-Murcia, 2001) B. Key journals (e.g. Applied Linguistics, 外语教学与研究，中小学外语教学）2) Raise questions about the feasibility (1) How can the answer to the general question be found? What does it entail? Will finding the answer necessitate setting up an experiment? Will it require the development of a test or a survey questionnaire? (2) Does the researcher have the prerequisite background knowledge to investigate the question? Is a knowledge of linguistics or sociolinguistics necessary? How much statistical analysis appears to be involved? Will someone with more expertise be required? If the study is to be related to other peripheral areas, how much research should be done before proceeding to the next phase? (3) Are the terms and concepts used in the formulation of the general question defined clearly and consistently? Are the concepts and terms used in a way that is consistent with how other researchers have used them? (4) What logistical and practical problems can be anticipated? If the general question asks about the language acquisition of children or adults, will the researcher have access to the number of subjects required to investigate the question? Is it necessary, will there be access to computer time and assistance? Will the researcher need to be trained in the use of computer statistical analysis such as SPSS or SAS? . Some Procedures in Data Collection 1. Subject Selection 2. Extraneous Variables Control3. Hypothesis Formulation4. Experimental and control group Setting-up1. Subject Selection1) Subject: an individual who is studied in a research project.2) Population and Samples Populationn any set of items or individuals etc. which share some common and observable characteristics which a sample can be taken. Sample:n any group of individuals which is selected to represent a population. Sampling: the procedure of selecting a sample A. simple random sampling.n In the simple random sampling, all the individuals of the defined population have an equal and independent chance of being selected as a member of the sample. Independent means the selection of one individual does not affect in any way the selection of any other individual.n We may use different procedures to do this e.g. using the random number table. B. Systematic sampling n It is used to obtain a sample from a defined population. This technique can be used if all members in a defined population have already been placed on a list in random order.n For example, we want to select 100 pupils from 1000 pupils. We can first divide the population by the member needed for the sample: 100010010n Then we can select at random a number smaller than the number got by the division, and start with that number and select every th name from a list of the population.n C. Stratified Samplingn A sample in which the population is grouped into several strata (e.g. of high, medium and low scores), and a selection drawn from each level, is known as a stratified samplen D. Volunteer Sampling Guides to subject selection A. To ensure that samples represent the population (lg. proficiency, sex, age, motivation etc.) B. To ensure that a minimum sample size is obtained (Charles & Merlter, 2002:154)2. Extraneous Variables control1) Variables (变量) (1) Definitionn A variable is anything in the research situation that varies.n Are the following variables?n Language proficiency, motivation, aptitude, sex, age, native lg. background, time, environment, course book, teaching methods.2) The independent variable (自变量)n Variable to which different subjects are exposed to different degree.n It is expected to bring about a change in the dependent variable. It may be called as stimulus or input or sometimes treatment.3) The dependent variable (依变量)n Variable the researcher is trying to change in his research.n Variable which changes or is influenced according to changes in one or more independent variables. 4) Extraneous variables n Variable that influences the results of a research project but has nothing to do with the experiment treatment. 5) Controlling the EV Environmental variables Subject variables (ficiency, mortality, mortality, maturation etc.) Hawthorne effect and John Henry effect3. Research questions and hypotheses 1) Research questions: A research question is the fundamental question inherent in the research topic.2) Whats a hypothesis?n A statement which describes how the researcher expects his/her research to come out i.e. what difference or relationship he expects to find.3) Criteria for good hypotheses state an expected relationship or difference between 2 or more variables. state definite reasons for considering the hypothesis worthy of testing be testable be as brief and clear as possible4) Types of hypotheses The null hypothesisn It states that no relationship exists between the variables studied or no difference will be found between the experimental treatments.n Students with low self-concept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show no change in their attitude toward school. The Directional Hypothesis (one-tailed hypothesis) It states a relationship between the variables being studied or a difference between experimental treatments that the researcher experts to emerge. (Indicating the direction of the results) Students with low self-concept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show improvement in their attitude toward school. Non-directional hypothesis It doesnt specify the direction of changesStudents with low self-concept who participate in a program of bibliotherapy will show changes in their attitude toward school.4. Setting up of the experimental group and control group 1) The experimental group 2) The control group. SurveyA survey is a detailed inspection or investigation1. Types of survey 1) Questionnaire (written) 2) Interview (oral)2. Steps in carrying out a survey (Nunan, 1992, PP.140141) 1) Define objectives What do we want to find out? 2) Identify target population Who do we want to know about? 3) Literature review What have others said/discovered? 4) Determine samples How many subjects should we survey? 5) Identify survey instruments How will the data be collected? 6) Design survey procedures How will the data collection be carried out? 7) Identify analytical procedures How will the data be analysed? 8) Determine reporting procedures How will results be presented? 3. Uses of questionnaires and interviews 1) To get opinions, ideas, experiences of our subjects 2) To get data on language use in a particular community ( Bolton and Luke, 1999) 4. Questionnaire design1) Question types Open questions Closed questions (Oxford, 1990; 文秋芳, 1995)2) Question wording No leading questions No complex and confusing questions No embarrassing questions Items should be directly referenced against one or more of the research objectives.3) Quantifying the responses Likert Scale5. Questionnaire administration1) Piloting the try out to assess its quality while it can still be revised and improved before it is used with the actual subjects in the research2) Administration.n To get a sufficient percentage of responses6. Interview An interview is a directed conversation between an investigator and an individual or group of individuals in order to get information, ( Richards, et al, 1998)1) Uses of interview To get data on stages and processes of language acquisition To assess proficiency To investigate linguistic phenomena in communication To get information 2) Types of interview structured n The researcher works through a list of set questions in a predetermined order. Semistructuredn The interviewer has a general idea of where he wants the interview to go, but does not enter the interview with a list of predetermined questions. Unstructuredn It is guided by the responses of the interviewee rather than the agenda of the researcher. The researcher exercises little or no control and the direction of the interview is relatively unpredetermined. Suggestions for planning and conducting interviews Prepare the interview schedulen The list of questions used by the interviewer is known as an interview schedule. Piloting n Interview questions are piloted with a small sample of subjects before being used. Selection of subjectsn Efforts should be made to secure a representative sample. Good atmosphere Use of recorders. Classroom observation and case studies1. Observation methods n ( in research ) procedures and techniques that are based on systematic observation of events, e.g. using audio and video recorders, check list, etc. n Observation methods are often used in studying language use and classroom events. ( Richards et al, 1998)2. Types of observation (Seliger and Shohamy, 1997) 1) Nonparticipant observation n the investigator observes and records or takes notes of the observed activities, but without the control or guidance of a questionnaire or other instrument.2) Participant observationn In the participant observation, the researchers are the observers; they participate in the very act that they are describing.3) Open observation and structured observation n In open observation, the data being recorded are broad and more general. n In structured observation, the researcher uses tools (instruments) to collect data.3. Uses of observation1) To observe how learners acquire or use language. (龚少瑜、陈永培，1997）2) To study the interaction between teachers and students.3) To find out how an experiment is going on.4) To find out the effect of different classroom practices on learning outcome.4. Observation scheme COLT 5. Case st