浅谈英语长句的分析及其翻译策略.doc

毕 业 论 文On the Analysis of Long English Sentences and Translation Strategies 浅谈英语长句的分析及其翻译策略 学 院 专 业 级 班学生姓名 学 号 指导教师 职 称 完成日期 教务处 制Abstract: As we all know, there is still a kind of language in our daily communication besides the written language and the spoken language that is our body language. It is an important part in our nonverbal communication. While in the process of our daily communication, a specific body movement or a posture may have different meanings in different regions or in different cultures. They may have the same goal that is to help us to express ourselves better. With the help of it, we can communicate and understand each other more easily。However, body language from different cultures has many differences because of different regions, races and cultural customs. And it is restricted by its culture and has different cultural connotations. That is to say, the same body language has different meanings in different cultures and has different social functions. This article devotes to a comparison and contrast of body language in different cultures in terms of eye language, gestures, postures, facial expressions and touch. It aims to illustrate the differences and similarities of body language and put forward the principles of reducing barriers in communication so as to achieve efficient communication and to avoid misunderstanding.Key Words: Nonverbal Communication; Body Language; Cultural Differences and Similarities; PrinciplesContentsIntroduction51.Definition and Functions of Nonverbal Communication51.2 Definition of Nonverbal Communication51.3 Functions of Nonverbal Communication62. Classification of Body Language73.Cultural Differences of Body Language83.1 Eye Language83.2 Gestures103.3 Postures113.4 Touch133.5 Facial Expressions 144. The Similarities of Body Language and Their Causes164.1 The Similarities of Body Language164.2 The Causes Resulting in the Similarities of Body Language165. The Principles of Reducing Barriers in Communication17Conclusion18Acknowledgements19References20IntroductionPeople can communicate with each other through not only verbal communication but also nonverbal communication which is the source of interpersonal communication and conveys our ideas more precisely. Moreover, the latter plays an essential role in human communication. Nonverbal communication is connected with cultures and it is the result of cultures. But many people pay great attention to the acceptance and correctness of the verbal communication and overlook the influence and cultural difference of nonverbal communication, which makes interaction much hindered .Therefore; better understanding and application are effective ways to improve interpersonal communication and to avoid unnecessary conflicts. The misunderstanding and cultural crash often occur in the cross-cultural communication. So in the process of communication, it is not a complete communication while ignoring the cultural differences of nonverbal communication. A famous anthropologist E. T. Hall pointed out “Silent language expresses more information than verbal language. Because it contains much information.” Indicated by the previous researches，only 35 percent of the information is gathered through the verbal channel，while the other 65 is collected by nonverbal meansTherefore the great significance of nonverbal behavior in human interaction is obviously seenA great number of psychologists and other scholars investigate into humans nonverbal behaviors from the psychological，social or cultural aspectsBirdwhistell，one of the most important researchers，published his book, Introduction to Kinesics,in 1952 which lays a foundation for the establishment of nonverbal communication studiesHall，another wellknown scholar in this field，published many works on nonverbal communication during his life，such as Silent Language(1959)， The Hidden Dimension(1966)and so onAll these works contribute to the remarkable development of nonverbal communication researchStudies on human nonverbal behaviors are also available in China, although the development cause much later and slowerMany Chinese scholars，such as Meng(1988，1991)，Wang(1988)，Bi(1991，1999), all conducted some investigations into nonverbal communicationAccording to some researchers abroad, in peoples daily life, nonverbal communication takes part over 65% in all of information exchange. And body language is an important part of nonverbal communication. Many experts have shown the importance of body language in the cross-cultural communication. “A psychologist proposed a formula: the total impact of message = 7% verbal + 38% vocal +55% facial expressions and behavior.” It is clear without body language we cant finish our informational exchange. Body language, like verbal language can express emotions, exchange ideas and deliver information. So we must know the cultural differences of body language to achieve efficient communication.1. Definition and Functions of Nonverbal Communication1.1 Definition of Nonverbal Communication“Nonverbal communication is a process in which communicators use the natural features of their bodies to deliver information and express specific meaning instinctively to the other communicator.” The study of nonverbal communication covers three major parts: Proxernics, Kinesics or Body Language, and Paralanguage.Proxernics refers that people keep certain space with each other when they communicate and the meaning it suggests. For example, Arabians like to keep close while Englishmen like to keep a certain distance. It is funny to see they are in conversation. Arabians will come closer and closer but Englishmen will withdraw further and further. When they finish the conversation, they are far away from the place they stood. Kinesics is also called body language, which studies the meanings of the movement of all parts of body and it includes many nonverbal behavior such as eye language, gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch and so on. We will discuss it in details later. Paralanguage refers to all kinds of sound signals made by mouth, which can express certain emotions and ideas. Paralanguage is not the phrases and sentences with clear meanings. It is to transform information by sound, such as “Ouch”. Besides this, the pitch of tone and loudness or quietness of voice also belongs to paralanguage. And some researchers believe that clothing belongs to paralanguage, too. So far nonverbal communication Can be open to many interpretationsSamovar proposes that nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by bolt the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiverHis purpose of giving such a somewhat lengthy definition is to offer one that would not only mark the boundaries of nonverbal communication, but also to reflect how the process actually worksTills definition includes both unintentional and intentional behavior in the total communication event1.2 Functions of Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal communication, like verbal communication is also a part of culture and the carrier of a certain culture. The function of nonverbal communication in the whole communication cant be overlooked. “In the daily communication, we can see people cant communicate efficiently by verbal language alone. And nonverbal communication will express clear meanings in a certain context. And a certain nonverbal communication should be connected with verbal communication or the other nonverbal communication to provide correct information.” So in communicative activities, nonverbal communication also plays a great role. Of course, we should pay close attention to the functions of nonverbal communication. “In any case, when verbal communication conflicts with nonverbal communication, people are willing to accept the information nonverbal communication delivers. Because nonverbal communication sounds more natural, more instinctive and it is hard to pretend.” Obviously, we should make full use of non verbal communication to achieve efficient communication. Now, we will discuss the functions of nonverbal communication. Repetition. For example, when we tell people how to get to the nearest hospital, we are not only telling them the direction but also pointing to the direction with hands. Supplement. For instance, we greet people with a smile. Smile functions as a supplement to the pleasure of meeting people. Replacement. When we communicate with others, we will frown instead of asking directly to hint that we dont understand and expect repetition or explanation. Emphasis. When we are talking or making a speech, we often raise our voice to stress the content. And sometimes, we say, “It is my fault” while hung down our heads. We smile and say, “Welcome”. We shout out to the people while waving our fists. All the nonverbal communication here emphasizes what we say. Adjustment. We often suggest that our talk is over by our tone, eyes, head nodding and other nonverbal communicative behaviors. For example, the manager stands up to show the end of the interview. If a public speaker wants to say something more important next he may pause a little before the statementThe pause saves to highlight or accent what he is to say laterOn the contrary, we can also negatively accent a verbal message by presenting it in an unenthusiastic manner. For instance，if a teacher teaches an unimportant part, he may accomplish it by using lowered voice，faster speed and shorter time on it. Contradicting. Instead of complementing the verbal message，people often simultaneously express different and even contradictory messages in their verbal and nonverbal behaviors2.Classification of Body LanguageWe have discussed the importance of nonverbal communication. And we also know body language reflects a certain cultural background. On the one hand, in a certain tradition, body language is determined by its customs and traditions. Violating them will cause communicative disconnection and misunderstanding. On the other hand, the meanings of body language in a certain culture are developing and changing. With the development of technology, traffic and contact all over the world, the meanings of body language are renewing every day. In this essay, we intend to make a comparison and contrast of the similarities and differences on body language in order to avoid misunderstanding and make efficient communication. In general sense, the study of body language began in 1950s. And during 1970s, the study of body language entered a fully developing period. From the late of 1970s to the early period of 1980s, body language contained more contents, and had a great influence on the other fields. And Doctor R.L. Bird White is the representative of study of body language. His research indicated: eyebrows could change for 23 positions and people could make 250,000 different facial expressions. “And psychologist David Abercrombie also pointed out: we speak with verbal organs but we talk with our body.” Body language contains eye language, gestures, postures, facial expressions, manners and behaviors and touch and so on. As the most important part of nonverbal communication, body language, like verbal language, has notable cultural features. Some parts of body language are innate, some are acquired and others are conscious. For example, (1) A baby can cry when it is born. It can suck its fingers when it is hungry. When we are excited, our pupils will enlarge distinctively. Our eyebrows will move rapidly when we greet. And we will frown when we are unsatisfied. We are yawning when we feel sleepy. And acquired body language is greatly affected by social environment and accepted through common practice. It often becomes a distinctive culture. Every country, every nation, and even every region has its own historical and cultural background. So the body language people use is quite different. For example, (2) Americans like to shrug when they have no idea about something. But Chinese dont do the same thing. Stretching out ones tongue means contempt in America, but in China it means surprise and respect for guests in Tibet. We can control some body language and we can do some postures consciously. For example, (3) If a public speaker is fiddling with a pencil or with his glasses all the time while he is talking, he is telling quite clearly that he is nervous. But some experienced speechmaker will pretend well and show confidence. movement，gesture，posture，facial expression, touch, gaze and distancing；object language， which includes the use of signs，designs，clothing，artifacts，regalia, and personal adornment；environmental language，which consists of color, lighting，architecture，space，direction and natural surroundings and natural surroundings(Chen &Gong，1 990：479)He(1 988：143) expresses the classes of nonverbal communication in this way：(1)Time Language：punctuality, promptness，time orientation, what is early or late，long or short；(2)Space Language(body distance or proxemics)：body touch and body distance；(3)Body Language：posture，stance，gestures，facial expressions，eye behavior, any other movement of any part of the body language appearance(including clothing cosmetics，hair style and smell)(4)Voice Modulation(the way voice is modulated or manipulated)：speed，pitch, volume，pause，etc(5)Environment：location, decoration, temperature，light，etcBi(1 999：6)suggests that nonverbal communication should fall into four categories：1)Body Language, referring to posture，etiquette(handshaking，kissing，hugging，smiling，and touching)，and body movement(head gesture，face gesture，eyemovement, arm gesture，hand gesture and leg movement)；2)Paralanguage，consisting of silence，turn-taking，and nonverbal sound；3)Object Language，including complexion, smell，dress and cosmetics，arrangement of furniture and cat decoration；4)Environmental Language，comprising message of space(attitudes towards crowding proxemics, territoriality, space orientation, seating arrangement)，message of time，architectural design and home decoration 3. Cultural Differences of Body LanguageCulture is，however，generally acknowledged as an inseparable part of language Firstly，is Body Language，which consists of the concept of culture in relation to language and the relationship between culture and body languageCulture is a system of shared beliefs，values，customs，behaviors and artifacts that the members of a society use to cope with their world and with one another，and they are transmitted from generation to generation through learningThis definition includes not only patterns of behaviors but also patterns of thought(shared meanings that the members of a society attach to various phenomena，natural and intellectual，including religion and ideologies) artifacts(tools，pottery，houses，machines，works of art)，and culturally transmitted skills and techniques used to make the artifactsDifferent believes are the causes of the differences of body language. According to the theories proposed by American anthologists Barnettt Pearce, Verrion Cronent, peoples behavior, the way of thinking and so on are affected by their believes. And every culture has its distinctive belief system. A normal action in this culture will be abnormal in another one. A positive behavior in one culture will be negative in another. People from eastern world advocate modesty, tolerance, mutual-support and responsibility for the group. But western people admire independence, self-respect, free development, and requiring individual space and so on . When it comes to the classifications of nonverbal communication, different scholars hold different categories in different dimensionsMost classifications divide nonverbal messages into two comprehensive categories：one belongs to those that are primarily produced by the body (appearance，movement, facial expressions，eye contact ,touch, smell，and paralanguage)；and the other belongs to those that the individual combines with the setting(space，time，and filene)Next, we will go to the differences of body language from five parts.3.1 Eye Language As saying goes “The eyes are the window of the soul”. That is to say, we can read ones mind through his/her eyes. Eye language can express complicated feelings and it is an important way to judge the intimacy of communicators. People from English speaking countries have more eye contact when they are in conversation. According to American tradition, communicators must gaze at each other. “But there are many rules about eye language: Whether to look at the other communicator or not; when it is the time to look at them, how long we can look at; who we can look at and who we cant; they all imply different meanings in communication.” In Juliet Fasters book “Body Language”, there is a paragraph which can explain the problem. “Two strangers sit face to face in the dinning room in a train; they can introduce themselves to each other. When they are eating, they can talk anything else. They also can avoid eye contact and do not show interest in each other. A writer described this situation in an article “They look over the menu again and again, play with knives and look at their nails. It seems that they look at them for the first time. If their eyes meet, they will turn away immediately and look out of the window.” (4) Americans pay great attention to the time and the way of eye contact. In common conversation, they will look at each other about one minute and then they will look away. If two Americans gaze at each other, which indicate they are intimate. In North America, the children there have