英汉语对比与大学英语写作.docVIP

英汉语对比与大学英语写作评判作文的四个方面:u 单词(choice of words)u 句法(Sentence structure) u 语篇：逻辑(unity & coherent全篇统一连贯)u 修辞(rhetoric) 一、 词汇1、 构词对比语言： 孤立语(isolating language ), 粘着语(agglutinating language）, 屈折语(inflecting language), 多式综合语（incorporating language）汉语属于孤立性语言（每个词只有一个语素构成），复合词的比例高。英语偏向于屈折性语言，或称综合性语言（每个词可以通过词形的变化来表示意义或语法功能的不同），词缀丰富，派生词的比例高。构词对比：英语：英语的构词有三种方法，即缀合法，转化法和复合法。缀合法：在词根上加上前缀与后缀，获得新的意义，而成为新词。比如Nationnational-international-internationalist Permitpermission permissibleimpermissible duc/ductconduct, introduce, produce, reduce, seduce, transducer,其他：conductive, conduciveness, conductible, conductivity, conduction, conductor转化法：词根形式不变而转化为其他词类，比如：drive(v.)-drive(n.), release(v.)-release(n.), record(n.)-record(v.), content(n.)-content(a.),contact(n.)-contact(v.) 复合法：把两个或两个以上独立的词结合在一起，构成新词的方法，如teapot, bedroom, snowfall.汉语：汉语的主要构词方法是复合法。 缀合法很少，而且不定：阿-阿哥、阿姐=哥哥、姐姐（或者哥、姐）我哥哥=我哥老-老虎、 老虎啸-虎啸子-狮子 狮子吼-狮吼词缀及语体意义例词词缀及语体意义例词老(-)老爸/老鼠-生学生/医生阿(-)阿哥/阿嫂本-本性/本行-子(-)剪子/嫂子前-前言/前胸-儿(-)苗儿/花儿自-自满/自费-巴(-)泥巴/尾巴法疗法/方法-头(-)老头/骨头副-副食品/副作用-汉(-)大汉/懒汉可-(-)可爱/可笑-丁(-)园丁/家丁-家作家/大家 复合词主要是并列关系： 同一联合：海洋、文学、追逐、阻塞、贸易、贯穿。反义联合：始终、甘苦、方圆、供求、异同、呼吸。类义联合（互为包含）：尺寸、斤两、江山、骨肉、爪牙、眉目、针线、穿戴。另外：1）.表示类属概念的概括词(general-utility words)加上任何一个区别事物特征的词，就可以形成一个新的词族，如：自然界的树木、花、草、虫与人类生活相关的车、船、厂、房、园、药等：杨树poplar桑树mulberry柳树willow椴树linden松树pine山楂树hawthorn椰子树coconut palm栎树oak柏树cypress李树plum英语的名词也有tree这一成分，pine tree, oak tree等，但tree是可有可无的。汉语中的树既不是后缀，也不是核心，而是由“树”出发，平行式地扩展成一系列的词。车：bus大轿车car轿车minibus面包车truck载重车jeep吉普车trailer拖车ambulance救赎车taxi出租车coach长途客车dumper自动卸货车crane吊车forklift铲车英语中虽然汽车的总称是bus或automobile，但是具体的车也单独命名。汉语中一律用一个偏正合成词，再如：专家：an expert at playing gold/on ancient vases/city planning/in psychologyan eye specialist/ a specialist in plastic surgery/in disease of nervous system胡子：shadow（落腮胡子）/handlebars（八字胡）/goatee（山羊胡）/tile beard（瓦形胡）/military moustache(军人胡)/ stubble beard（残须）/stiletto beard（剑形髭）杂志：magazine/journal(学术)/periodical叫：狗叫a dog barks/猫叫a cat mews/鸡叫a hen cackles/鸟叫a bird chirps/老虎叫a tiger roars/酒：wine/whisky/beer酒杯：a glass/cup/tumbler/mug琴：piano/accordion(手风琴)/violin/harp(竖琴)/harmonica（口琴）笔：a pen/pencil/ball pen肉：pork(猪肉)/beef/mutton（羊肉）约：会appoint/date(男女约会)笔：毛笔，蜡笔，画笔，铅笔，粉笔，自来水笔，试电笔。馆：图书馆，博物馆，旅馆，体育馆，展览馆，照相馆，大使馆（library/museum/hotel/gymnasium/exhibition hall, photo studio, embassy）。假：假牙，假花，假币，假画，假肢。（false teeth, artificial flowers, counterfeit money, fake pictures, artificial limbs）2） .以某一语素为出发点，与一系列语素合成一个语义相关的词族。以“清”字为例，其基本含义是“纯净”，平行扩展合成的形容词有：清楚distinct清贫poor清澈clear, limpid清凉cool and refreshing清洁clean清香delicate, fragrance清净quiet, secluded清雅elegant清闲idle清淡light, delicate补充：1）具体.的复合法构词对比：l 相同点：复合词中的语言关系有类似句法的关系：主谓式：sunrise, heartbreak 地震、眼熟、头痛、性急动宾式:pick pocket, birth control行政、关心、动员修饰限定关系:raindrop, moon landing, watchdog白糖、夕阳、铅笔l 不同点:汉语都是按顺序构成，即按照主谓，动宾，修饰被修饰的语序排列。而英语复合词的排序顺序既可以是顺线性的，如springboard, rainfall, homework;也可以是逆线性的，如playboy(动+主语)，duty-free, class-conscious(被修饰+修饰), breathtaking, record-breaking（宾+动）。2）.复合词中心问题：语义中心有两种, 一种是按照复合词构成成分之间语义特征的主从地位来确定；另一种是看复合词构成成分在复合词整体语义表达中的地位如何, 起主导作用的构成成分是中心词。然而合成型复合名词的语义真值往往并不体现在构成成分之中（王军，2008）, egghead即不指egg (蛋)也不指head (头) ,而是指“知识分子”。“心腹”既不指“心”也不指“腹”,而是指“值得信赖的人”。可见,复合名词的语义真值存在于复合名词形成并发生转喻之后,传统的语义中心观都是以对复合词的语义进行拆分为前提的,因而所谓的复合词之复合,实质上是成分语义的复合。3）.决定复合名词语义构成的因素复合名词含义的产生有时也会涉及非语义方面的因素。双音化:双音化源于语音系统的简化,这体现在声、韵、调等方面。把单音节词扩展为双音节词则成为避免出现歧义的一种有效方法。此外,汉语语言对音韵之美的追求也在很大程度上促进了双音化的发展。“语欲其偶,便于口诵”(马氏文通) , 还有“偶语易安, 奇字难适”,这使得现代汉语中的单音节词越来越“站不住”,于是就出现了许多“双字同义”、“有音无义”或者“加字不加义”的现象。例如“身体、皮肤、牙齿、年龄”均属双字同义,“蟋蟀”中的“蟀”属有音无义,而“石头”的“头”属加字不加。赵元任很早就指出,音节和节奏是汉语复合词的构词要素。潘文国等认为，“从音节上去理解汉语的双音词比从意义上去理解有时更具解释力”。因此,我们在对汉语复合名词进行概念语义阐释时,绝对不能忽视音韵因素的作用。音重:音重也是语音因素, 音重影响复合词词义的现象在英汉语中都存在。A ty factory 是指“生产玩具的工厂”( a factory where toys are made) ,而a toy factory 则是指孩子“用玩具建造的工厂,里面包含各种各样的玩具”( a factory which is also a toy, along with allsorts of other toys)。汉语也有类似的情况。以“兄弟”为例,两字均重读时为一短语,意为“哥哥和弟弟”,而如果两字读成重音时,则为一复合名词,意为“某一(些)情同手足的人”。“弟兄”、“利害”、“笔墨”、“眉目”等也有类似的解读。词序: 英语复合词内部词序一旦改变,意义则完全不同, 而汉语的情况则有很大的不同。崔希亮认为, 诸如“兵士- 士兵”、“绅士- 士绅”、“粮食- 食粮”等复合名词的词序是可以自由转换的。汉语并列式复合词的词序本身往往含有强烈的理据性。程家枢等把决定词序的意义因素归纳为: ( 1 )“上”、“长”前，“下”、“幼”后,如“衣裳”、“首领”等; (2)“男”前，“女”后,如“夫妇”、“凤凰”等;(3)“主”前，“次”后,如“都市”、“枝叶”等; ( 4)“大”前，“小”后,如“国家”、“眼睛”等; (5)“好”前，“坏”后, 如“是非”、“功过”等; ( 6 )“先”、“轻”前，“后”、“重”后,如“心肝”、“耳目”等。，汉语并列式复合名词的词序渗透出强烈的文化因素(即中国传统的男尊女卑、长幼尊卑观念)，以及人类普遍的基本认知顺序(如由先及后、由好及坏、由大及小)的影响。语境:单个(或单音节)的词往往都有一词多义的现象,复合名词也是如此。以snake poison(蛇毒)为例:a. the poison which is used to kill snakes(用于杀死蛇的毒药) b. the poison which is made from snakes(从蛇中提取的毒物) c. the poison which is made for snake(供蛇使用的有毒物质) d. the poison which looks like a snake(形状似蛇的有毒物质) e. the poison which is used to cure snake bites(用于治疗蛇伤的有毒药物)2、词义对比英语：一词多义（polysemy），意义灵活，丰富多变，对上下文的依赖性大。比如：uncle, parent等等。Oh, what a story!（谎话）To make a long story short.（长话短说）Its another story new. （问题）He stories about his academic career and his professional career. （编造）Once the story got abroad, I would never hear the last of it. （奇闻）I dont buy your story. （不信你的话）Storyes circulated first in Moscow. （谎言）I have tried all I could to silence such a story. （谣传）Her story is one of the saddest. （遭遇）Johns tale sounded to me exactly like a fish story. （荒唐无比）The stoy about him became smaller and faded from the public eye by and by. （报道）I dont want you to get a wrong idea of me form all these stories you hear. （闲话）You put me on the spot. I have to cook up a story this time. （找借口）A young man came to the police office with a story. （报案）Kill:He killed the man He killed the dog.（宰杀）They killed the porposal(拒绝)Pleaes kill lthe engine（熄火）.He is dressed to kill（十分吸引人）.You are killing（笑死我了） me.She kills（宠坏） her child with kindnessHe took a snack to kill(充饥) his hanger.He killed time every day at the park.He killed(否决) the motion when it came from the committee.He killed himself with overwork.He killed（抹杀） the spirit of the group.The new killed their hope.He killed three bottles of whisky in a week.汉语：言简意赅，辨析精细，表意准确，形象鲜明，单字搭配能力强，组词方式灵活12。汉语虽然以单字为本（在古汉语中单音词较多），但是现代汉语词汇却以双音节词居多，有丰富的成语（四字成语）。比如：生：生育、生长、生活，生命，生平；生肉，生字，生硬；学生，招生；生怕，好生。延伸：生辰，生计，生还，生病，生动，生理，新生，放生，实习生，生搬硬套，后生可畏，急中生智，人地两生。生气：不高兴；有活力。生产产生3、英汉搭配对比l 相似之处：两种语言的搭配各有强弱之分：He killed the man.He killed the tree by spraying it too heavily.To kill time is a sort of suicide. They killed the motion when it came from the committee.Kill：既可以有生命的，也可以无生命的，既可以人，也可以动物/植物。而汉语只能用语人和动物，不用于植物。l 引申意义对比：汉语的搭配意义更广、弹性更大、更模糊。Red hands（沾满鲜血的手）Red vengeance（血腥的复仇）Red activities（“左派”活动）红榜红尘红白喜事眼红打毛衣（knit sweater）打瞌睡（nod）打枪（shoot）打文件（type the document）打针（have a injection）打电话（make a phone call）l 语义偶合：心heart倾心to give ones heart to放心to set ones heart at ease灰心to lose heart关心to take to heart伤心to break ones heart心对心heart to heart衷心的heart-felt有善心的kind-hearted从心底里from the bottom of ones heart全心全意heart and soull 很多搭配都是约定俗成25耳濡目染，大器晚成，空中楼阁，雨后春笋，A cat with nine lives（逃离险境的天才）A pound of flesh（苛刻的信贷条件）Reading lamp台灯Combination lock密码箱Placement test分班考试Pocket money零花钱4、英语词汇的特点与学习 1）、注意小词的学习He lives beyond his income.Between astonishment and despair, she didnt know what to do.The only thing we are after is truth.He has three people working under him.He has something of a scholar about him.（他有学者的气质）。It will save us at least as much, if not more.Well have to make it up one way or another.我们总得把它补上。It is nothing less than direct provocation. 这简直是公然挑衅。Players who excel in vigorous attack are often weak in defence and vice versa. 2)、掌握熟词新的意义和新的用法Theory is something(imp.) but practice is everything(most imp).Cheap computers, faxes and phone calls will make communication to work a thing for the past. Whatever we do, we can not be all things to all men.As the saying goes: “Practice makes perfect.”Modern myth has it that on Christ Eve when the children are asleep, Santa Claus comes silently down the chimney and puts presents in their stockings.（按照现代人虚构的说法，）Professors expect students, especially graduate students, to be able to exhaust the reference sources in library.（教授们希望学生，尤其是研究生，能充分挖掘利用图书馆的资料）3） 、将焦点集中在常用词上。郎文当代英语词典中，用来释义和示例所用的词汇总共只有两千个，用这两千个最常用的词就能把五万多词条及短语的意义和用法解释清楚。4）、关注词语的搭配l 自由组合： buy a house, buy gfood, buy a radio,buy a camera.l 成语（idioms）：kick the bucketl 有限组合：make/reject/put forward/support/approve/acceopt/ back/submit/grant/oppose a proposal l 熟记单词搭配：预制词块（prefabricated chunks）upset/ disturb balanceacquire knowledge achieve purpose obtain/gain profit/benefit attain the post of ministerpreserve food reserve seat/room conserve soilOur society places so much emphasis on “making it” that we assume that any failure is bad. What we dont always recognize is that what looks like failure may, in the long run, prove beneficial. What we fail to notice is the fact that childrens education is what we should attach substantial importance to.l 原因： l 它能使学习者语言的表达比较准确。l 注重搭配结构的学习能够提高表达，特别是口头表达的流利程度。如果在头脑中储存了若干作为整体的搭配结构，那么在交际时就可以迅速将其提取出来，缓解了由于语言的原因造成的 压力和焦虑，从而提高交际的效率。l 搭配结构的使用能使英语的表达简练、自然、地道。My father had a big operation and he is now getting better.My father is recovering from a big operation. 5)、同义词与单词互换nurture-nourish/foster/bring up/ breed/cultivate/ abandon-forsake/discard/desert/rejectdiscern-detect/ make out/ perceive, sensedo-perform/ undertake/ carry out/ accomplish/ fulfill/ conduct/applybe subject to: be apt/inclined/liable/ prone/to - have the tendency of doing somethingstick to -conform to/ comply with/adhere to; be consistent with/ 单词互换: 简单词汇 建议使用词汇a great many of - multitudes/a multitude ofa great deal of- a surge of/ pang of / flood of about- concerning/ involving/on/with regard to/as far asbe concerned/when it comes to/whereis concerned/ in the neighborhood of大约 appropriately, approximately, properly adjust - tailor .to /adapt oneself to适应 e.g.tailor ones need to the requirement of 满足要求.be being discussed/built: be under discussion/way/threat be in use - be in service be wealthy - be better off becausedue to/owing to/thanks to the fact that.carefully/ delightfully:- do sth. with care/ delight cause. bring about/give rise to/trigger/fuel(v) /initiate /simulate/inspire引起 e.g. With the boom of economy, peoples life has improved to a great extent, initiating the possibility of keeping pets/buying the private cars. come across/run into - chance upon 偶然遇见e.g. The construction workers chanced upon some ancient coins that dated from the 13th century.concern- have something to do with/be connected to/be correlated to/be associated with 与有关系continue doing sth.-follow up with 继续 youd better follow up the interview with a call control v - bring . under control/governdidnt -failed to do sth. .没有做doperform/undertake/conduct/fulfill/carryout/accomplish exhaust - consume, wear outexplain-account forfill sb. with -imbue sb. with.for many years - over the yearsfor/for the aim/purpose of- be intended to/aimed at, with a view tofor the purpose of sth./for the benefit of sb.-for sths/sbs sake/ for the sake of sth/sb.form/make up-constitute构成 from to. - range from to is being done/ be in progress- be under way.give - extend/present/provide/ render go - cover: e.g.ChiChester covered 14,000 miles before stopping in Sydney, Australia.go beyond-exceed/surpass超越good -perfect/nice/ marvelous/excellent/miraculousgreat -considerable/substantial/immense/tremendous/gianthappened to find -chanced upon. have -possess/be equipped with/be armed with or: equip oneself with/be endowed with/with具有e.g. ( 凭着餐馆的微薄收入), Mary could hardly make both ends meet. (答案：With the small income from the restaurant job,.) have no more .- run out (of sth.) 用完，耗尽 health - the physical and mental well- beinghold : argue/assert /advocate /contend /maintain 主张be important- make a difference/matter increase-escalateit is likely that-chances are that, there is every chance keep, to be .-remain/stay: e.g.The population growth still remains one of the most serious problems of the present world.luckily/fortunately- as luck would have itmain-primary/overwhelming/chief make . -work: e.g work wonders.make an effort(every effort) to努力: endeavor/ join our efforts/make joint efforts to do/make double efforts to do/make persistent/persevering efforts to do/try what one can to do/try ones utmost to do/strain/exert oneself to do make sb. realize. : awaken sb. to . many kinds of - a great variety ofmore and more-increasinglymuch -excessive/exorbitantnarrow the difference- bridge the gulf no matter what-regardless ofoften/frequently -more often than not be payed .- be covered: e.g. Although covered by insurance, Tom was still annoyed by the accidentsoutstanding-make yourself different/try to make yourself salient/ conspicuous/ exceptional/ distinct/different from让自己与众不同 preparefor-pave the way for, batten down the hatches(未雨绸缪) possible- prospective/potential/would-be未来的/可能的 produce results-bear fruits. e. g. He struggled for many years before his efforts bore fruitsprovide sth. to sb. - feed .the purpose of is to - .is intended to do sth.rapid growth - boomregularly/voluntarily/absolutely-on regular/voluntary/absolute basisshould - -be expected succeed in doing sth.-manage to do sth./ make it to take part in.-be involved in/anticipate/ submerge/ immerse oneself in take place.- arise, occur: e.g. The suspicion occurred in his mindbecause .The reason why.is that thoughtful - consideratetry successfully-make it/manage to do sth.under conditions-such being the caseuse up -consume, exhaustvery-considerablly/extremely/substantially/excessively/ exceptionally / greatly非常will not do sth-in no case/on no account/under no circumstances决不 wonderful -perfect, fantastic/splendid/magnificent reduce - cut down on take trouble to do sth.-bother to do sth. 费心做某事 sth. is being blamed for floods, hurricane,-sth. causes(v.) floods, hurricane, sth. is the cause of - sth. is responsible for. do sth. or take part in eagerly and actively- throw oneself into in the end - in the long run 从长远看5、主导词类的对比：l 汉语：动词主导汉语的动词使用频率高，小句或者句子的数量多。出现动词集结的现象，按照个动作实际上或逻辑上的时间顺序和因果次序来安排各动词在句子里的先后位置。而英语动词的使用受形态变化规则的制约，并不完全按照时间顺序和因果次序的制约，一个句子再长，再复杂，除了并列使用动词，只能有一个谓语动词，而其他动作都用非谓语形式和各种短语处理。a. 老栓还踌躇着，这黑的人便抢过灯笼，一把扯下纸罩，裹了馒头，塞于老栓，一手抓过洋钱，捏一捏，转身去了，嘴里哼着说b. 晴雯先接出来，笑道：好啊，叫我研了墨，早起高兴，只写了三个字，扔下笔就走了，哄我等了这一天，快来给我写完了这些墨才算呢！汉语中有大量的动宾结构、连动式、兼语式：c.我带孩子上街去走走。(连动式)（I took my child to the street for a walk.）d. 你妈妈叫你马上回去。(兼语式)(Your mother wants you back at once.)e. 领这些孩子去海边游泳是要负责任的。（主语）f. 我的任务是领这些孩子去海边游泳。（宾语）g. 领这些孩子去海边游泳的任务，我实在不敢接受。（定语）h. 这一番鼓励的话，把他讲得无话可说，领这些孩子去海边游泳。（补语）l 英语：名词主导语是静止性的语言 林语堂： 在英语语言中名词占优势，喜用抽象名词做主语。也就是说，英语更多使用名词，或者名词性词组或结构，尤其在科技法律等正式文体中更是如此，英语有所谓“静”的特点，关系代词丰富。现代汉语汉语意象名词丰富，但抽象名词缺乏。以动词占优势，倾向于更多地使用动词或者动词词组，具有“动”的特点。 所以，许多在汉语中用动词表达的含义，用英语来说就要用名词表达才合适。1）.你只要努力，就会成功a. If you work hard, you will succeed. b. Hard work will lead to success.2）.你的作文里犯了很多语法错误 a. You have made a great many grammatical mistakes in your writing. b. A great many grammatical mistakes have occurred in your writing.3）.上海自从改革以来发生了很大的变化。 a. Shanghai has taken place many changed since the economic reform. b. Many changes have occurred/arisen/mushroomed in Shanghai since the economic reform.4). 在1066年，英语又出现了很多新词 a. There have been a lot of new words in English since 1066.A flood of new words occurred in of new vocabulary occurred in 1066. 5）.如果我们认识不到人口增长的害处，就会铸成大错a.If we dont recognize the serious problems of growing population, we will make a big mistake. b.Failure to recognize the seriousness growing population will lead to a big mistake. 6）.他心直口快，总是愿意和任何人交朋友，所以很快就赢得了大家的信任。a. He was very outspoken and was always ready to make friends with anyone, so he won their trust. b. His outspokenness and readiness to make friend with anyone soon won their trust.7). Loneliness held the great masses of immigrants together, and poverty kept them down（这些移民只身在外，举目无亲，所以聚居一处，而且经济支绌，难以发展。）8). The availability of information on the INTERNET, for example, widens the possibilities of informal education immensely.（比如，由于人们能在INTERNET网上可以得到信息，这就大大扩大了获得非正规教育的可能性。）9). He said that this exercise of privilege of high-rank government officials would produce bad influence on peoples mind concerning our Partys image. （他说，政府高级官员滥用职权，将会在人们心目中产生很坏的影响，损坏党的形象。）10). a. That will help lead you to attain/achieve your goals. b. That will help lead you to the attainment of your goals. （那会有助于你达到目标。）11). a.This incident helps me to understand the nature of human beings deeply.b. This incident deepens my understanding of nature of human beings deeply.12). a.I am very