四六级英语写作策略.ppt

大学英语写作策略,2012.9-2013.1,Lecture Two Writing Style Lecture Three Structure(I) - Discourse论述 Lecture Four Structure(II) - Paragraph Development Lecture Five Language (I) - Sentences,英语的文章可分为六种写作文体：记叙文、描写文、抒情文、说明文、议论文和应用文。迄今为止，四级写作考过的文体有记叙文、说明文、议论文和应用文，这四种文体的测试情况如右表。 1987-2011年四级写作文体 下面，我们结合历年考试的典型试题及参考作文，逐一介绍记叙文、议论文、说明文和应用文四种文体。,1记叙文（Narrative Composition） 2说明文 （Expositive Composition） 3议论文（Argumentative Composition） 4应用文（Practical Composition）,以记人叙事为主要内容，以叙述为主要表达方式的文章叫记叙文。记述文通常包括六大要素：时间（when）、地点（where）、人物（who）、事件（what）、原因（why）和方式（how）。叙述的方法有两种：以事情发生的先后顺序进行叙述的称为顺述；如果先介绍事件的结果，然后再叙述其发生经过，则称为倒述。,典型试题（1988年6月CET-4） Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition about An Early Morning Walk in three paragraphs. You are given the first sentence of each paragraph and are required to develop the idea in completing the paragraph. Your part of the composition should be about 100 words, not including the words given. Remember to write clearly. You should write this composition with a pen on the Composition Sheet. An Early Morning Walk 1. One morning I got up early and everything around was very quiet._ _ 2. When I arrived at the park, I found, to my surprise, that there were so many people there. _ 3. _. Taking early morning walks makes a man healthy and wise.,参考作文 An Early Morning Walk One morning I got up early and everything around was very quiet. The sun had just risen and everything seemed to be covered with a layer of golden silk. There were only some birds singing occasionally in the tall trees. I strolled along the street towards the park, breathing the fresh air and feeling extremely happy. When I arrived at the park, I found, to my surprise, that there were so many people there. Men and women, boys and girls, all were enjoying themselves in their various activities. Some were jogging or running along the path, others were dancing in a ring, and still others were doing morning exercises under a big tree. Not far away, an old man was showing the young fellows how to perform a sword-dance. As the thin cloud in the sky spread apart, the sun shone brighter and brighter. Everyone in the park looked fresh, energetic and enjoyable. Taking early morning walk makes a man healthy and wise. Total: 163 words Paragraph 1: 56 words Paragraph 2: 73 words Paragraph 3: 34 words,说明文亦称为技术性描写文，用于介绍客观事物，说明其特点、功能、用途等。说明文旨在向人们进行解释或提供知识，完全是就事论事，不带个人感情色彩。写说明文应特别注重条理分明、层次清楚，语言简洁。说明文常用的写作方法有定义法（Definition）、举例法（Illustration）、分类法（Classification）和比较法（Comparison）等。,典型试题（2001年1月CET-4） Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic How to Succeed in a Job Interview? You should write at least 100 words, and base your composition on the outline given in Chinese below: 1. 面试在求职过程中的作用 2. 取得面试成功的因素：仪表、举止谈吐、能力、专业知识、自信、实事求是,参考作文 How to Succeed in a Job Interview More often than not, a job interview may be arranged if one applies for a job. A job interview is to enable a better mutual understanding between the interviewer and the interviewee. For an applicant, a job interview is his chance to secure the position he wants by impressing his would-be employer. To succeed in an interview, a job applicant needs to convince the interviewer that he is the best candidate for the position in concern. He needs to impress by making a full display of his communicative ability, potentiality, expertise, confidence and integrity. His appearance is to give his interviewer a first impression, thus dressing code is something that an interviewee cannot afford to overlook. The most important thing is integrity. While your employer knows that he needs to have the most competent personnel on his payroll, he also knows that mistakenly taking in a competent but disintegrated guy is equal to planting a time bomb in his painfully established fortress. Total: 162 words Paragraph 1: 52words Paragraph 2: 110 words,议论文用于摆事实、讲道理、发议论或阐明作者的观点和主张。议论文与说明文的不同点在于：说明文只是客观地解释事物，使读者能够理解，而议论文却企图影响读者的思想和行动，说服读者接受作者的观点。例如，如果一篇文章向读者说明如何打乒乓球，那就是说明文；如果它劝读者学打乒乓球，那就是议论文。 议论文的基本写法是归纳（induction）、演绎（deduction）和类比（analogy）。归纳是由个别到一般，演绎是由一般到个别，类比则是由个别到个别。,典型试题（2009年12月 CET-4） Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay on the topic of Creating a Green Campus. You should write at least 120 words following the outline given below: 1. 建设绿色校园十分重要 2. 绿色校园不仅指绿色的环境 3. 为了建设绿色校园，我们应该,参考作文 Creating a Green Campus As is known to all, the clean atmosphere is important for every living creature. Likewise, a healthy collegial environment, or green campus, as it has come to be known, is crucial for a students development, psychologically as much as academically. A green campus means a lot more than just the trees and grass on a campus. Green is both visual and psychological. It also refers to the local mini-culture on campus. What meets ones eyes should be comfortable. Litters strewn over the campus, or open hugging and kissing are certainly not. To build a green campus takes the efforts from everyone. More trees and grass need to be planted, garbage should be disposed of more thoughtfully, and most importantly, open hugging and kissing should not be seen in public. Total: 129 words Paragraph 1: 40 words Paragraph 2: 51 words Paragraph 3: 38 words,应用文包括书信、申请书、证明书、简历、便条、电报、布告、通知、说明书、广告、请柬、贺卡等，其中书信是最为常用的应用文。,正式英文书信由八个部分组成，对此可参阅以下图示。 Heading（写信人地址及写信日期） Inside address（收信人姓名及地址） Salutation（称呼） Body（正文） Complementary close（结束语） Signature（署名） Postscript（附加语） Enclosure（附件） 随着电脑的普及，越来越多的人采用并列式（Block Style）或完全并列式（Full Block Style）的写法。前者将书信正文的每行第一个字母靠左对齐，互相齐平，段落与段落之间空一行；后者将书信所有部分的第一个字母靠左对齐，互相齐平，段落与段落之间空一行。 信封的写法 典型试题（2002年1月CET-4） 参考作文,信头指写信人的地址及写信日期，英文书信将写信人的地址和写信日期写在信笺的右上角。英文的日期顺序为月、日、年（如June 3, 2000）或日、月、年（如3rd June, 2000），而不是年、月、日。,英文信函中收信人姓名及地址的写法与信封上相同，先写姓名，后写地址。如果收信人担任领导职务，则应在姓名之下写其职务。如果收信人的地址比较繁琐，這一项可比信封上写得简略些，只写机构、城市和国家名。在非正式信件中，此项可略去。,英语信函的称呼一般都是以Dear或My dear开头的，如Dear Father，Dear Bob，My dear Mary，等等。在事务信函或其它正式书信中，称呼语可只写 Dear sir，Dear sirs。如果收信人是女性，那就写为 Dear Madam，Dear Ladies。,正文是书信的主要组成部分。在正文中，重要的事情写在前面，次要的事情写在后面。应特别注意的是，英文书信习惯上不用“你好”开头，这与汉语的书信习惯很不相同。,英语信件的结束语相当于汉语信件的“此致敬礼”，常见的表达用语有很多。 例如： Yours respectfully, （对上级、年长者） Your student,（学生对老师） Yours sincerely,（对平辈、朋友） Your loving father,（对家庭成员） Yours sincerely,（一般事务信件） Yours faithfully,（商业信件）,正式书信中写信人的签名下面应有打印的名字。此外，写信人常把自己的职务写在打印名的下面。例如： Yours faithfully, Zhang Hong（签名） Zhang Hong（打印名） Director, English Department（职务）,附加语简写为P.S.，用于补充书信写完后又想到的事情。正式信件中应避免写附加语。,正式信函中如果另有附件，可在信笺的左下方注明Enclosure，简写为Encl.。如有多种附件，可简写为Enclos.。,Zhang Wenjun（发信人姓名） Stamp（邮票） 86, Heping Road（地址） Tianjin, 300138 China（国名） Mr. and Mrs. Harvey M. Taylor（收信人姓名） 3807 Fawn Creek Drive（地址） Boulder, CO 80302 U.S.A.（国名）,Directions: For this part, you are allowed thirty minutes to write a composition on the topic A Letter to the University President about the Canteen Service on Campus. You should write at least 100 words, and base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below: 假如你是李明，请你就本校食堂的状况给校长写一封信，内容应涉及食堂的饭菜质量、价格、环境、服务等，可以是表扬，可以是批评建议，也可以兼而有之。 January 12th, 2002 Dear Mr. President, _ Li Ming,A Letter to the University President about the Canteen Service on Campus January 12th, 2002 Dear Mr. President, I am a student of computer science in our university. I am writing this letter to you to show my concern over the canteen service on campus. To begin with, we feel we need more varieties of foods served to the students, which means every student can get the food which he thinks is suitable for his taste and his pocket-money allowance. Next, we find it essential to elongate the opening hours of the canteen. A student from a class that ends at 12:00 noon may reach the canteen no sooner than 12:30. However, the fact is that the canteen is closed when he gets there. Finally, we are greatly concerned with the dining environment. We feel that student diners are entitled to a better dining environment than what they are having now. We do hope that the university authority will look into the problems and solve them. Yours Sincerely, Li Ming Total: 148 words Paragraph 1: 27 words Paragraph 2: 106 words Paragraph 3: 15 words,英语短文多由引言（Introduction）、正文（Body）和结尾（Ending or Conclusion）三部分组成。引言部分通常列举事实、说明现状或者从正面论述某事物。正文部分通常对事实或现状进行分析，说明其原因，或者从反面论述某事物。结尾部分通常为作者的结论、看法或解决问题的办法、措施。 英语短文的这种直线形组织方式，不仅适应信息社会中重要信息凸现的特点，同时也反映了英美人的重要的话先说、先入为主的思维逻辑。根据英美人的思维逻辑，中国章回小说中的“欲知后事如何，且听下回分解”不堪忍受。汉语的文章由于受中国传统文化和思维的熏陶往往比较含蓄，点题之前可能有很多铺垫，最后才将结果或最重要的信息展示出来。了解英、汉两种语言的表达差异，有助于考生排除母语文化的影响和干扰，从而写出比较地道的英语文章。 大学英语四、六级短文写作要求考生写的短文多为三个自然段，引言、正文和结尾各占一段，这主要是受短文字数的限制。如果段落过多，每个段落的中心思想则难以展开，所写出的文章必然会蜻蜓点水，说理不透；而如果段落过少，写出的文章则又可能内容单一，缺少层次感，而且不利于对考生的写作能力做出正确评判。相比较而言，要在120或150词的短文中表达较丰富的思想，三段的短文最为适宜。,为了使考生更好地掌握英语四、六级短文写作的基本框架，我们将短文的三段结构和各段的大体写作内容图示如右： 语篇结构模版 注：并非每个段落都有段末结论句，应视写作需要而定。 考生如掌握了以上图示内容，就可以大体做到未出茅庐便知三分天下，未上考场已预知所写文章的基本结构和内容梗概。借助于这样的语篇结构图示，考生就会对写作考试有个宏观的把握，减少写作应试的被动性。,典型试题1（2011年6月 CET-4） Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay on the topic of Online Shopping. You should write at least 120 words following the outline given below: 1. 现在网上购物已成为一种时尚 2. 网上购物有很多好处，但也有不少问题 3. 我的建议 结构模板 列举事实-分析事实-看法,参考作文 Online Shopping With the development of the Internet, distant shopping has changed from mere fantasy to reality. The number of people engaged in on-line shopping has been on a steady increase. It is nothing uncommon to hear that your roommate has bought a book through Emozan, or your neighbour has ordered a toy for his dog through Cyberbuy.采购网，面向世界各国家庭用品买家，提供优质中国制造的产品。 Like any double-edged weapon, on-line shopping is not without its problems. Convenient, economical, and probably embarrassment-saving as it might be, on-line shopping has made possible, as a byproduct, all types of cyber-cheatings. A world is never a perfect world without scum-bags. skmb卑鄙的家伙 To stay away from cyber pitfalls,陷阱 people need to be better-informed了解情况的 on on-line shopping. However, to make on-line shopping what it should be, what we truly need is updated最新的 laws and better policing.监督 Total: 130 words Paragraph 1: 56 words Paragraph 2: 41 words Paragraph 3: 33 words,典型试题2（2007年1月 CET-4） Directions: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay entitled Spring Festival Gala on CCTV. You should write at least 120 words following the outline given below: 1. 许多人喜欢在除夕夜观看春节晚会 2. 但有些人提出取消春节晚会 3. 我的看法 结构模板 正面论述-反面论述-看法,参考作文 Spring Festival Gala on CCTV It has been widely accepted as a habit to watch the evening gala on the Eve of the Spring Festival. Most Chinese families enjoy sitting around and entertaining the “spiritual feast”. However, a group of people propose to cancel this patterned典范的 way of celebrating the traditional festival. They think, firstly, the gala is a waste of artists resource. For more than six months, they may invest great energy to earn the precious five minutes in the gala, which could probably turn to be a failure. Secondly, people nowadays enjoy more diversified多样化的 life styles, so this unified way of entertainment can no longer cater for their tastes. As far as I am concerned, I would not trade for用换 the gala an exciting Karaoke party with my family or friends on that special day. Total: 132 words Paragraph 1: 31 words Paragraph 2: 75 words Paragraph 3: 26 words,在一篇文章中，段落，即语段，只能算一个大整体中的一小部分，但它却是一个完整的单位，可以写任何事情。可以说，一个段落就是一篇微型作文（a mini-composition），将段落的结构放大就成了一篇文章。 段落由几个彼此衔接的句子组成，根据这些句子在段落中的作用，我们可将其分为主题句（topic sentence）、发展句（developing sentence）和结论句（concluding sentence）。 一个段落只能有一个中心思想，代表这个中心思想的句子叫主题句。段落中的其他句子必须紧紧围绕着主题句展开，对主题句加以阐明、补充、发挥、议论，或提供细节，这些为主题句服务的句子叫发展句。 有时，主题句先在段首出现，最后又在段落的结尾重述一遍，使段落中心思想占一个段落的首尾两个显著位置，从而更加突出了段落中心思想。对于这样的段末句，我们称之为结论句。 英语写作非常强调主题句，并且通常将主题句放在段首，这一点与汉语写作有很大的不同。英文语段的这种直线形组织方式，既反映了英美人的先入为主的思维习惯，又适应了信息社会中重要信息凸现的特点。,一、语段结构模板 二、语段写作原则 三、怎样写好主题句 四、语段扩展方法,英文语段的扩展方法大致可分为三种：扩张、收拢和先扩张后收拢。语段扩展的不同方法，决定了语段的不同写作模式。 1扩张式语段 2收拢式语段 3先扩张后收拢式语段,扩张法采用的是演绎（Deduction）的方法。一般是先概括后具体，先整体轮廓后具体细节，即以主题句开头，然后用若干个发展句（亦可称为支持句supporting sentence）来论证或说明该主题。这种语段的结构可以用一个竖立的三角形来表示，主题句处在三角形顶角的位置，发展句则在三角形的底边上。,图 4.1 扩张式语段结构模板,主题句,发展句（1）,发展句（2）,发展句（3）,下述两个语段都是典型的扩张式语段。其中第一句点出主题，然后是几个发展句对主题句进行扩展。 例1： Women are playing an increasingly important part in society today. They are contributing more and more to the society. If you go to a company, you see a woman accountant. If you go to a hospital, you see a woman doctor. And if you go to a university, you see a sea of很多的 women academics.大学教师 点评：该语段段首句为主题句，提出了“妇女正在社会上发挥着重要的作用”的论点。发展句则从几个不同角度说明妇女对社会的贡献。运用上述语段模式进行分解，就可以对其结构一目了然。,Women play an important part,Women accountants in company,Women doctors in hospital,Women academics in university,例2： Some people enjoy the convenience of the city. First, there are many public places of entertainment, such as parks, cinemas, exhibitions, nightclubs and so on. Second, the public transportation facilities are very convenient, with taxicabs, buses, trolley buses,无轨电车 and subways taking people to any place in the city. Third, shops and department stores are well stocked with放满了 goods of all kinds, high in quality and low in price. 点评：该语段主题句提出了“有些人喜欢城市里的各种便利设施”的论点。发展句则从三个不同的侧面展开，来支持主题句的观点。根据上述扩张式语段模式，该语段可分解为下图。,Convenience of the city,Public places of entertainment,Public transportation facilities,Shops and department stores,英语短文写作中以这种扩张式语段的使用最为普遍。为方便语段内容的扩展，使文字表达更加条理清楚，主题句通常置于语段的开头。四、六级短文适宜开门见山，应“Avoid: Your composition doesnt come to the point quickly enough（避免你的作文没有很快地点题。）”我们对语段结构的分析，侧重点也放在这种以主题句开头的语段。当然，这只是语段结构的一种模式，并不意味着在任何语篇中都千篇一律地使用它。,收拢法采用的是归纳（Induction）的方法。采用收拢法的语段先写细节、例证，然后逐步收拢，最后归纳出段落主题，即发展句或支持句写在段落的开头，最后用结论句来概括主题。这种语段的结构可以用一个倒置的三角形来表示，位于三角形底边上的是发展句，结论句则位在三角形顶角。,图 4.2 收拢式语段结构模板,发展句（1）,发展句（2）,发展句（3）,结论句,下述语段是典型的收拢式结构，其中开头几句为发展句，末尾一句则是结论句。 例3： Some people think happiness lies in money, in spacious宽敞的 and splendid豪华的 residences or in beautiful private cars. Some think it lies in delicious foods and expensive clothing. Still some think it lies in a handsome boy-friend or a pretty girl-friend. All this may be true, but all this is not the essence of happiness, which lies in ones feeling, state of mind and sense of satisfaction from success in his or her career. 点评：该语段首先列举了人们对幸福的不同观点，然后收拢概括，指出幸福是一种感觉，是一种心态，是一种对自己事业成功的满足。根据上述收拢语段结构，该语段可分解为下图。,1) Money, house and car,2) Delicious food and expensive clothing,3) Boy friend and girl friend,Not the essence of happiness,相对而言，收拢式语段在英语短文写作中使用得较少，尤其是在四、六级短文写作中使用的更少。多数情况是，把收拢式结构与扩张式结构结合起来，从而把语段写得更为完善。,有时候，单纯采用扩张式结构，即以一个表达中心思想的主题句开始，后面跟着若干个用于解释、说明、支持或证明该主题句的发展句的语段，似乎还不够完美，还需要一个用于概括全段意思并与主题句相照应的结尾句（Concluding Sentence）。这就等于把扩张式和收拢式两种语段结构合并在一起，形成如下图所示的菱形语段结构。,图 4.3 先扩张后收拢式语段结构模板,主题句,发展句（1）,发展句（2）,发展句（3）,结论句,下述段落就是一个典型的先扩张后收拢式语段。 例4： A dictionary plays an important role in the study of language. We often consult it when confronted by an unfamiliar word, or a word of whose meaning we are not quite certain. The dictionary is compared to a teacher that cannot speak. Many a time it tells us more than a human teacher does. Therefore, it is necessary for us to have a dictionary at hand. 点评：该语段第一句点出主题，中间的几个句子对主题句进行扩展，最后一句给出结论。按照上述先扩张后收拢式语段结构模板对该段落进行分解，其结构便一目了然。,Important role of dictionary,1) We consult it for word meanings.,2) We compare it to a teacher.,3) It is better than a human teacher,It is necessary to have a dictionary.,综上所述，语段的扩展方法基本上有两种，扩张和收拢，亦称演绎和归纳。第三种方法只是两者的结合。这种模板式的语段写作方法如能恰当地加以应用，常常可以收到事半功倍的效果，不但能够保证语段的主题明确，论述条理清楚，而且很容易为初学者所掌握。,语段写作应该遵循统一性、连贯性、句式多样化和语言简洁的原则，现对这四项原则分述如下。,1 统一性原则（unity） 2 连贯性原则（coherence） 3 句式多样化原则（variety of sentence patterns） 4 语言简洁原则（clarity of sentences）,在服从于语篇主题的同时，语段有自己的中心思想。由于语段所表达的内容是语篇主题的一个层次或侧面，所以组成语段的句子必须围绕这个层次或侧面进行具体的说明、解释或论述。任何与这个层次或侧面无关的内容都有损于语段的统一性，会使读者产生一种“雾里看花”的感觉。请看下列几个语段：,例1： Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival. In the 1930s, less than one in five cancer victims lived more than five years. In the 1950s, the ratio was one in four, and in the 1960s, it was one in three. Currently, four of ten patients who get cancer this year will be alive five years from now. The gain from “one in four“ to “four in ten“ represents about 69,000 lives saved each year. 点评：该语段围绕主题句 Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer（与癌症的斗争正在不断取得进步）来进行扩展，几个发展句分别叙述了不同时期所取得的进步，用具体的数字说明与过去相比有更多的癌症病人能多活几年。发展句证实了主题句，因此该语段具有统一性。,例2： Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s, few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival. But because of advances in medical technology, progress has been made so that currently four in ten cancer patients survive. It has been proven that smoking is a direct cause of lung cancer. However, the battle has not been won. Although cures for some forms of cancer have been discovered, other forms of cancer are still increasing. Heart disease is also increasing. 点评：该语段一开始也是讲“与癌症的斗争正在不断取得进步”这一主题。后面的扩展句中，第二、三句围绕这一主题句进行论述，第四句却开始谈肺癌的起因，第五、六句的内容恰好与本语段主题相反，最后一句写的则又是一个新话题。整个语段没有围绕一个中心思想来扩展，而是东拉西扯，缺乏条理，因而不具统一性。,例3： My father is very strict with his children, especially me. He will not let me out of the house unless I have done all my homework. Frankly, I do not care whether I go to school or not. School is such a waste of time. There are not any opportunities anyway. My mother does not agree with my father. They quarrel a lot. Sometimes I wish I could live alone, but we do not have a spare house. 点评：本语段虽然没有什么语法错误，但缺乏一个中心思想，结构十分凌乱。作者第一句写“父亲对孩子很严，尤其是对我”，第二句也围绕父亲的“严”字做文章，但第三、四句谈的是作者对上学的认识，第五句说的是母亲与父亲观点不同，最后一句写的却是作者想单独居住的愿望。整个语段的主题是什么，让人摸不着头脑，