语言学概论重点.doc

Chapter6Syntax句法学6.1Syntax：definition定义Syntaxisastudyofsentences:sentencestructureandformation句法学就是对句子的学习。Syntaxcanbedefinedasthebranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowthewordsofalanguagecanbecombinedtomakelargerunits,suchasphrases,clausesandsentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。Itstudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsofthesentencestructureandtherulesgoverningtheproductionofsentences.它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。句法研究语言的句子结构。Finite(有限的)numberofwordsandsmallsetofrulescancreateinfinitenumberofsentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。Syntacticknowledge:theintuitionofanativespeakerabouthowwordsarecombinedtobephrasesandandhowphrasesarecombinedintosentences.句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。6.2Grammar，syntaxandmorphology语法、句法学和形态学Grammar：“theknowledgeandstudyofthemorphologicalandsyntacticregularitiesofanaturallanguage.”Itexcludesphonetics,phonology,semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。它在语音学，音位学，语义学之外。Grammarincludesmorphologyandsyntax.语法包括形态学和句法学。1）Morphologystudiestheinternalstructuresofwordsandwordformationprocesses.形态学是语法的一部分，是研究词语的内部结构和构词过程的语言学分支学科。2）Syntaxisconcernedwiththerelationshipsbetweenwordsandphraseswithinasentence.它研究句子中词和短句之间的关系。句子用两种不同方式学习：Statically(静态的):wecandescribethestructuresofsentencestoillustratetherelationshipamongtheelementsofasentence；我们可以描述句子结构之间的关系来说明句子的元素。Dynamically（动态地）:wecanstudyhowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.我们可以学习生成的句子的语法规则。6.3syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations横组合、纵聚合和等级关系Syntagmaticisafundamentalterminlinguistics，torefertothesequentialcharacteristicsofspeech，seenasastringofconstituentsinlinearorder.Therelationshipsbetweenconstituents(syntagmsorsyntagmas组成成分)inaconstructionaregenerallycalledsyntagmaticrelations.横组合是语言学的基本术语，横组合关系指一个单位和同一序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或共现的所有成分间的关系。Setsofsyntagmaticallyrelatedconstituentsarecalledstructures.横组合关系的成分被称为结构。Paradigmaticrelationsorassociativerelationsreferstothesetofrelationsalinguistcunithaswithotherunitsinaspecificcontext.聚合关系或关联关系是指语言单位和其他单位在特定上下文间的关系。Paradigmaticrelationsholdbetweenanitemandsimilaronesthatcanappearinthesamepositioninasequence.纵聚合关系指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系。Paradigmaticrelationsrefertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.纵聚合关系指句子内外语言元素之间的关系。Classesofparadigmaticallyrelatedelementsarecalledsystem,like“personsystem(人称系统)“casesystem”（格位系统）。Syntacticcategories(句法范畴)refertothelinguisticformsthathaveparadigmaticrelations（纵聚合关系）.Theyincludelexicalcategories(词汇范畴)andnon-lexicalcategories.Lexicalcategories:名词Noun(N):book,table.动词Verb(V);hit,tell形容词Adjective(Adj):good,bad副词Adverb(Adv):greatly限定词Determiner(Det):a,this,his,介词Preposition(P):onin连词conjunction(Conj);andif感叹词Interjection(Int):oh,ahPhrasalcategories（短句范畴）:名词短语Nounphrase(NP):abook动词短语Verbphrase(VP):singasong形容词短语Adjectivephrase(AP):verygood副词短语Adverbphrase(ADVP):verywell,助动词短语Auxiliaryphrase(AUX):tensemodel,tenseperf介词短语Prepositionalphrase(PP):intheroomHierarchicalstructure(层次结构)refertotheinnerlayering(内部层次关系)ofsentences,thatis,sentencesconsistingofphrasesandphrasesinturnarecomposedofwords.HierarchicalstructurecanbeanalysedbyICanalysis,labeledICanalysis,phrasemarkersandlabeledbracketing.层次结构可用直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法来分析。6.4ICAnalysis,labeledICAnalysis,phrasemarkers,andlabeledbracketing直接成分分析、带标记的直接成分分析、短语标记语、带标记括弧法ICAnalysisisakindofgrammaticalanalysis，whichreferstothemajordivisionsthatcanbemadewithinasyntacticconstruction，atanylevel.Toputitinasimpleway，wecandividethewordsofasentence（oramorphemesofaword）intotwogroups,andthendivideeachgroupintosub-groupsandsoon,untilthesinglewordsofthesentences（orsinglemorphemesoftheword）.直接成分分析是一种语法分析,它指的是可以组成句法结构的任何级别的主要部分。用一个简单的方法,我们可以把一个句子的话(或一个单词的语素)分成两组,然后将每个小组再分成小组等等,直到剩简单的单词(或单语素的词)。ICAnalysis=immediate-constituentanalysis（constituentanalysis）ItwasamajorfeatureofBloomfieldianStructuralistlinguistics(布龙菲尔德结构主义语言学的主要特征)Immediateconstituents直接成分Ultimateconstituents最终成分（树型图底部的部分）Constituen成分:alltheformsexcepttheoneatthetop-thesentenceitselfOneadvantageofICAnalysisistorevealthestructuralambiguity(结构性歧义)LabeledICAnalysis（带标记的直接成分分析）:tolabelthegrammaticalcategoriesofeachconstituentsandthesentences.把语法类别的每个成分和句子标明。AstheICAnalysisistooredundant(重复的)andtroublesome,thephrasemarkers(短语标记法)areadvanced.Labeledbracketing(方括标记法)isalsoappliedinrepresenting（表示）thehierarchicalstructure（分层结构）ofsentence.6.5ConstituencyandDependency成分关系、依存关系Constituency(成分关系):Itistodivideasentenceintoaseriesofconstituentswhichcanbeanalysedintofurtherconstituentsuntilnofurtherdivisionispossible.它是一个句子划分为一系列可分析的成分一直分到不能再除去。Constituentsstructureanalysisisahierarchicalanalysisshowingthedifferentconstituentsatdifferentstructurallevelsbasedonthedistributionoflinguisticforms.成分结构分析是一个层次分析显示不同结构水平的不同的成分，基于语言形式的分布。Dependencygrammar(依存语法)isatypeofformalgrammar，developedbyseverallinguistsinthe1950s（inparticular，theFrenchlinguistLucienTesniere）whichestablishestypesofdependenciesbetweentheelementsofaconstructionasameansofexplaininggrammaticalrelationships.(依存语法)是一种正式的语法,由几个语言学家在1950年代(特别是法国语言学家吕西安Tesniere),建立了建筑中各元素的依存种类，作为一种解释语法关系的手段。Inasyntacticconnection（句法联系）betweentwoelementsoneisthegoverningelement(支配因素)andtheotheristhedependentelement(依存因素).Whenagoverningelementisdependentonanothergoverningelement,acomplexhierarchicaldependecyorderresults.在依存语法看来,在句子的每两个要素或成分之间,一个是支配要素/成分,另一个则是依存要素/成分。如果一个支配成分依存于另一个支配成分,则形成了一个复杂的等级依存顺序。Inasentence,theabsolutegovernoristheverb.每一个句子当中,绝对的支配者是动词。6.6TGGrammar(转换生成语法)6.6.1表层结构和深层结构（Surfacestructuresanddeepstructures）静态学习Staticstudyoflanguagedealswithonlysurfacestructure(表层结构);动态学习dynamicstudyoflanguagedealswithbothsurfacestructureanddeepstructure.Sentencegeneration(句子的生成)alwaysstartswiththedeepstructureandthentransformsitintoitssurfacestructure.句子生成总是先从深层结构开始,然后把它转换为它的表面结构。Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(短语结构规则)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbythetransformationalrules.深层结构是由短语结构规则产生的而表面结构是来源于他们的深层结构的转换规则。Thewholeprocesscanberepresentedby:Phrasestructurerules（PSrules）deepstructuresT-rules（transformationalrules）surfacestructuresDiffenrences:表面结构和深层结构的不同1）Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentences;whiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.表面结构直接对应句子的线性排列;而深层结构对应于句子的有意义的分组。2）Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.表面结构更具体而深层结构更抽象。3）Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences表面结构产生句子的形式而深层结构产生句子的含义4）Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.表面结构可发音的但深层结构不能6.6.2phrasestructurerules短语结构规则SNPAUPVPHeisworking.NP(Det)(AP)NthoseoldbooksAP(AP)/(ADVP)AdjveryoldVPV(NP)(PP)(S)/(AP)(ADVPrunfast,gettotheschoolPPPNPintheboxAUXTense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog)Tensepresent/pastwasisModalcan,may,must,will,shall,couldPerfhave-EN(完成体)Progbe-ING(进行体)Theconstituentsputintheparenthesesarecalledoptionalconstituentsbecausetheymaybepresentorabsentontherightsideofthearrow.这个成分放在括号被称为可选成分,因为他们可能会离开身外的右边的箭头。Andtheconstituentswhichmustbepresentontherightsideofthearrowarecalledcompulsoryconstituents.必须出现在右边的箭头的成分被称为强制成分。深层结构中动词词组要注意这两点：1）theverbsinVPalwaystakethebaseformandtheinflectionalendingsofverbsarepartoftheauxiliaryphrase在动词短语中的动词总是基础形式并且动词的屈折结尾部分是助动词短语的部分。2）verbsinVParemainverbswhilealltheotherhelpingverbsarepartofAUX动词短语里的动词是主要动词而所有其他帮助动词是辅助词6.6.3transformationalrules(转换规则)transformationalrulesareusedtotransformdeepstructuresintosurfacestructures,whichinvolvesaseriesofT-rules.ThemoreT-rulesareapplied,themoreconcretethestructurebecomesandthecloseritistoitssurfacestructure.转换规则用于转换成表面结构的深层结构,其中涉及一系列转换规则。更多的转换规则应用，使更多的具体的结构变得越接近其表面结构。deepstructurebyT-rules(1)modifiedstructure(1)byT-rules(2)modifiedstructure(2)byT-rules(n)surfacestructureEachT-ruleperformsoneortwoofthefollowingthreeoperations:1）rearrangingtheelementsofthestructure;2）addinganewelementtothestructure;3）deletinganelementfromthestructure.每个转换规则执行一个或两个以下三个操作:1)重新安排元素的结构;2)添加一个新元素的结构;3)删除一个元素的结构。Eachtransformationalruleconsistsoftwoparts:1）thestructuraldescription(SD);2）structuralchange(SC).Inthedescriptionofthedeepstructure,X,Y,Zcanbeusedasthevariables(变量)每个转换规则由两部分组成:1)结构描述(SD);2)结构变化(SC)。在深层结构的描述,X,Y,Z可以用作变量。T-Affix（词缀转换规则）T-Passive(被动转换规则)T-agentdeletion（删除施事者转换规则）T-negation（否定转换规则）T-Doinsertion（助动词do插入转换规则）T-YesorNoquestion（一般疑问句转换规则）T-Wh-wordinsertion（疑问词插入转换规则）T-Reflexive（反身代词转换规则）T-Imperative（祁使句转换规则）OfalltheT-rules,T-Affixhoppingisobligatorywhileothersareoptional.在所有的转换规则里，词汇转换规则是必要的，其他是选择性的Theorderingoftransformationalrules:特别要注意的是，转换规则的顺序很重要：Iftheorderingisnotfollowed,thetransformationwillproduceill-formedsentencesorbeblockedup.如果排序不对,转换会产生不规范的句子或被堵塞。1)T-ReflexivemustbeappliedbeforeT-Imperative.2)T-PassivemustbeappliedbeforeT-Reflexive.3)T-Pas