研究生专业英语第七讲.ppt

Special- Scientific and Technical English,Speaker: Haiyan Wang Dr.Prof.,1. 如何写好英文文章的实验及结果,1.1.实验部分 Experiments or Materials and Methods 1）回答两个问题： 自已做了什么？ 自已又是如何做的？,2）作用 一是让同领域的研究者也能重复和验证作者的研究方法； 二是证明作者所采用的方法是经过认真仔细考虑的、能被认可的正确方法； 三对作者的研究工作质量做出判断，即在展现研究结果的可信度和有效性方面，该部分是一个非常关键的部分。,3）基本内容及结构 对采用材料、仪器仪表、设备及测试系统详细介绍； 对于实验程序所作的清楚说明； 对整个实验的概述； 选用特定材料、设备或方法的理由； 实验的特殊条件：温度、压力； 特殊实验设备或方法的详细介绍，若采用的是标准的实验设备或方法，则作简略介绍； 应用的统计分析方法的描述。,举例： 1) Title: Aluminium-induced crystallisation of silicon On glass for thin-film solar cells Experiments: The polycrystalline silicon layers were processed onto glass substrates(Corning1737). Al and a-Si layers, each about 0.5 m thick, were deposited by thermal evaporation and DC magnetron sputtering, respectively.,The average grain size of the polycrystalline Al layer was found to be dependent on the deposition rate, which was varied between 0.5 and 10nm/s. The a-Si was deposited at a rate of 25nm/min without any substrate heating in a 1.5Pa argon atmosphere at 100W using a 100 mm (millimeter), 120cm boron-doped Czochralski-Si wafer as the sputtering target. 1 Torr = 133.3 Pa (Pascal), 1 Pa = 7.510-3 Torr 1 Torr = 1 mmHg 柱, 1 Torr = 1/760 大气压,To perform the AIC of the layered structures, the samples were heated in dry N2 ambient at temperatures ranging from 350 to 500 for between 5min and 60h. The resulting poly-Si films were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), focused ion beam microscopy (FIB) and Raman spectroscopy. : degree Centigrade, degree Celsius,Resistivity and Hall effect Measurements using the Van der Pauw technique were conducted on 25mm2 squares of film, with Al dots fabricated on the corners.,1.1.1. 对设备或材料的描述 1）描述方法 A. 先作概述再详细介绍材料的主要成分或重要性 B. 当描述仪器、装置、设备时，通常需要解释它们的结构数据、功能与运行方式 C. 一般对材料或设备的描述是和实验步骤的描述分开的,2)语态的应用: A. 当作者不是描述自已的行为，而是描述实验设备或材料的运行或反应时，通常应使用主动语态。即此时是设备运行方式，而不是人的行为 Two digital strain gauge pressure transducers measured the vapor pressure upstream and downstream of the test tube.,The lasers transmitted upstream signals on preassigned optical wavelengths. B. 作者也可以用被动语态来描述实验设备的运作，注意此时必须插入by 短语。句子中的动词是及物动词时才可用被动语态。 The tube was uniformly heated by a 54kW DC power supply. The flow rate was controlled by the volumetric pump.,3) 时态的应用 A. 在描述研究对象或材料时，对普遍不受时间影响的事实，则应使用一般现在时； 如：在描述研究者通常采用的标准设备时，可用一般现在时， B. 若句子是特定的、过去的行为或事件，则应使用一般过去时；,C. 有时需要自行设计、制造或改造一些特殊的设备，以满足实验工作的要求，在描述这些特殊设备时，通常应使用一般过去时。 如：this refractory-lined research combustor was designed to simulate the time/temperature and mixing characteristics of practical industrial liquid and gas combustion system.,下面是另一典型例子，第一句说明作者过去的行为，用过去时；第二、三句描述仍然存在、其它研者还可以继续使用的这个设备的原理及功能，因原理和功能不受时间的影响，所以用一般现在时 For experiments under conditions similar to those in a real engine, a rapid compression machine (RCM) was developed.,This real scale RCM with a bore of 78.3 mm is based on a new driving concept. It offers optical access to the piston bowl from four directions, as shown in Fig. 3. D) 在描述总体及样品时，时态的应用规则与上述相似。描述抽样的总体的句子内容是普遍的、不受时间影响的事实，用一般现在时，且句中常有typically, usually, generally等副词。,Adults in these programs typically have six hours of instruction per week in English. Enrollment in the course generally consists mainly of information science and engineering students. E)有时描述特定样品句子内容是指过去某个研究课题专门选定的研究对象的事实，句子用一般过去时。,The sample consisted of 270 senior engineers from three international companies in London. All of the managers in the sample had at least five years of experience in their current job.,1.1.2. 对实验程序的描述 1）时态的应用 A. 对方法和实验程序的描述，都用来反映作者过去的研究活动，用一般过去时； B. 介绍实验程序或方法的句子中，当作者叙述一般不受时间影响的事实或采用的标准程序时，可用一般现在时。,2)语态的使用 在叙述实验方法和步骤中，使用被动语态较多； 只有当作者想引起特别注意时，才用“we”当主语,2) title: High open-circuit voltage photovoltaic devices from carbon-nanotube-polymer composites Experiments: SWNTs (supplied by the Carbolex, Inc) synthesized by the arc discharge method were used in this study. The raw powder contains SWNTs with a diameter of 1.4nm, amorphous carbon, carbon-encased metal nanoparticles (10nm diameter), and other graphitic impurities.,Inc. Abbreviation for incorporated (美股份有限的, 组成公司的, ): Organized as a legal company or group of companies (used in the US as part of the names of some companies),SWNT separation was achieved using the hydrothermal method which involves refluxing of the powder containing SWNTs in distilled water at100 for 12h, followed by drying in air at 60, a finally washing in 6M hydrochloric acid to remove the catalyst particles. 10,Electron microscopy observations revealed that the purification procedure was successful in reducing the amount of carbon and metal impurities by almost 50%. Poly-(octylthiophene)s辛基噻吩used were supplied from Sigma-Aldrich (Mav=1.42105 ) and were used without further purifica-Mavion.,The SWNT powder was dispersed in chloroform 三氯甲烷by means of a high power ultrasonic probe. Photovoltaic devices were fabricated in the sandwich indium-tin-oxide (ITO) /composite/Al configuration. There ported devices were fabricated on 1515cm2 ITO-coated glass substrates.,The ITO was cleaned in an ultrasonic bath using acetone丙酮and isopropanol异丙醇. The active layer was formed by drop casting or spin coating of a solution of 1wt% of nanotubes in P3OT from a 10mg/ml chloroform solution. Metal electrodes were thermally evaporated under vacuum at a pressure better than of 10-6 mbar.,Additionally, a small portion of the ITO was removed prior to spin coating of the film using a HCl chemical etch to prevent short circuits between the Al and the ITO in the contact areas. In order to minimize aging effects due to oxygen or moisture, the devices were kept in a nitrogen-filled glove box after preparation and between the measurements.,The devices were tested under dark and illuminated conditions (nominal AM1.5 illumination of 100mW/cm2) through the glass/ITO side. The HP4140B voltage source was used to drive the device with a HP3458A multimeter monitoring the current through it.,The power conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic device is given by where Voc (V), Isc (A/cm2 ), FF, and P (W/cm2 ) are open circuit voltage, short circuit current, fill factor, and incident light power, respectively. The fill factor is given by Eq. (2) and can be considered as the figure of merit of how much of the available power can be extracted from a solar cell.,where Voc and Isc are the current and the voltage at the maximum power point of the current-voltage(I-V) in the fourth quadrant. For forward bias, the Al electrode was biased as the anode.,All photoelectric measurements were performed at room temperature. Transmission electron micro-graph were obtained using a JEOL 4000EX transmission electron microscope (TEM) with a point to point resolution of 0.14nm.,The samples for TEM were prepared by drop casting of a small quantity of the material on lacey or holey carbon grids.,1.2.结果部分 1.2.1.基本内容及结构 介绍研究结果,往往一个句子指出反映完整研究结果的图表； 概述最重要的研究结果； 对研究结果作出评论或概括，由这些结果得到的推论。,1.2.2.介绍研究结果 在结果部分的开始以及结果部分各段落的前面，通常出现介绍研究结果的句子，用于指出研究结果在哪个表格或图形中给出： Fig.5 shows the influences of operating fragmentation on char loadings. Data in Table 3 show that operating and capital costs of DiCTT technology are significantly lower.,The effect of having higher turbine inlet temperature on the cycle thermal efficiency is shown in Figure 4. 时态： 此类句子都使用一般现在时态，常用show, present, display, summarize, depict及illustrate. 语态：可被动也可主动。,还有一种方法是直接陈述结果： At night the average hourly heat release from storage is massive (see Fig. 3). At night the average hourly heat release is massive, as shown in Fig.3. or as Fig.3 shows. 或放在句首。,1.2.3.叙述研究结果 ）时态： 一般采用一般过去时，表明作者在这些研究过程中在某特定情况下出的结果； 如作者想表达自已的结果具有普遍有效性，可用一般现在时； 一般而言可用不同时态表明结果的不同有效范围； 在许多学术领域，在叙述研究结果用一般过去时。,）科技论文中，作者常常必须叙述的研究结果： A. 某个参数或变量在某段时间内的变化情况； B. 不同试样、方法或研究对象之间的比较； C. 不同参数或变量之间的关系或影响。,1.2.4.说明和评论研究结果,2. 科技英语常用表达方式,1)位置: 空间位置 There is a circle at the top of the rectangle. There is a square in the middle of the rectangle. There is a triangle on the left of the rectangle. There is an inverted triangle on the right of the rectangle. There are parallel lines at the bottom of the rectangle. There is a star outside/inside the rectangle.,The circle is above the square. The square is between the two triangles. The two parallel lines are below the square. 各元素在周期表中的位置： Lanthanum镧is at the bottom, on the left. Vanadium 钒is in the third column from the left, at the top. Cobalt 钴is in the top row, near the middle.,Tungsten 钨is on the right, in the middle row. Cadmium 镉is on the right, in the middle row. Zinc is at the top/in the top row, on the right. Gold is at the bottom of the second column from the right.,Scandium 钪is in the top row /at the top, on the left. Iron is at the top /in the top row, in the fifth column from the right, near the middle. 周期表中的相对位置 Osmium 锇is beside and to the right of the rhodium铑 Cobalt钴is between iron and nickel镍,Platinum铂and mercury汞are either side of gold. Gold is below /vertically below silver. Iron is diagonally above rhodium铑, to the left. Silver is diagonally below zinc, to the left. Cobalt is next to, or adjacent to, nickel. Manganese is in line with copper and gold is in line with hafnium铪。,Yttrium 钇is near tantalum 钽but far from zinc. Inverted cone is beyond the cube (also behind the cube). The cylinder is in front of the rectangular solid. The sphere is at the end of the line.,B. 地理位置： Mexico is situated in North America. Europe is situated to the west of Asia. The Sahara撒哈拉 desert is located in Africa and to the south-west of Cairo.开罗 Moscow is to the north of new Delhi.新德里 Gold is found in the south of Africa.,2)Exception Everyone in the room comes from Egypt, except (for) the teacher. None of the planets is inhabited, except (for) the earth. All solids expand when they liquefy, except (for) ice and a few others.,Except for/with the exception of the teacher, everyone in the room comes from Egypt. Except for/with the exception of the earth, none of the planets is inhabited. Except for/with the exception of ice and a few others, all solids expand when they liquefy.,An engine can not run without fuel. The engine would quickly overheat without generating heat. Apart from/besides/in addition to the lecturer, there are twenty people here.,3)Manner The bridge was so well built that it lasted for a hundred years. The bridge was so designed that it would last for a hundred years. The bridge was strongly built, so that is lasted for a century. The bridge was designed so that it would last for a century.,4)Arrangements The government will arrange to employ the redundant workers elsewhere. The government will arrange for redundant workers to be employed elsewhere.,3. 科技英语翻译技巧,3.1. 英译汉被动句翻译对策 英汉两种语言都有被动语态，但两种语言对被子动语态的运用却不尽相同。同一个意思，英语习惯用被动语态，汉语却往往要用主动语态。 在科技英语中，英语用被动语态的频率远高于汉语。两种语言的这一差别，在英汉汉英翻译中值得注意。,1）把英语习惯的被动句译成汉语习惯的主动句： A. 当英语被动句的主语是无生命的名词，且没有 “by”引导的行为主体，译成主动句 The switch has been turned on. 开关已闭合 The PH system can be applied to basic solutions too. PH体系也适用于碱性溶液。,B. 当句中有各种形式的状语时，其中包括由介词by引导的行为主体，可将状语译为主语，将原句主语译成宾语 The numerical data concerned are provided in the third chapter. 第三章提供了有关数据 Friction can be reduced and life of the machine prolonged by lubrication. 润滑能减少摩擦，延长机器寿命,C. 增译适当的主语，把原句译成主动语态：译成“有人”、“人们”、“大家”等 Fuzzy control is found an effective way to control the systems without precise mathematic models. 人们发现，模糊控制是一种不具备精确数学模型的有效方法。 If one or more electrons are removed, the atom is said to be positively charged. 若原子失去一个或多个电子，我们就说该原子带正电。,D. 某些动词如know, consider, find, believe, see, think等用于被动句时，和以it作形式主语的被动语态句，汉译时加上不确定的主语，或依据汉语习惯表达。 Salt is known to have a very strong corroding effect on metals. 大家知道，盐对金属有很强的腐蚀作用。,It is said that numerical control is the operation of machine tools by numbers. 人们说，数控就是机床用数字来操纵。 It is felt that人们感到 It is found that人们发现 It is suggested that人们建议 it was estimated that据估计 .,E. 被动句译成汉语无主句的情况 英语中许多被动句不需要或无法讲出动作的发出者，因些往往可以成汉语无主句，而把原句中的主语译成宾语。 Attention must be paid to the function of the machine. 必须注意这台机器的功能。 Gloves must be worn for this operation. 进行这一操作时必须戴手套。,F.泽成汉语判断句的情况 凡是描述事物的过程、性质和状态的英语被动句，实际上与系表结构很相近，往往译成“是的”结构，谓语译在是和的之间： Early cars were very strange of which the tyres on the wheels were made of iron or solid rubber. 早期的汽车很奇特，它的轮胎是用铁或实心橡胶制成的。,The atom of lithium is made up of three electrons, three protons and four neutrons. 锂原子是由三个电子、三个质子和四个中子组成的。,2）译成汉语被动句的情况 译成汉语的“被”字句或“受”字句。这些句子一方面是因英汉表达一致，一是可强调原文对象。 值得注意的是，现代汉语由于受外来语的影响，被字句有增无减。 另外，在翻译这类被动句时最好多找一些字眼来代替被字，以更符合汉语习惯，如：使，为所，让、叫、挨、遭等。,The speed of generator is controlled by the prime mover. 发动机的转速受原动机的控制。 The screen is coated with chemicals that give off light when struck by the beam. 屏幕上涂有化学药品，在受到电子束撞击时即可发光。,3.2. 汉译英被动句翻译对策 1）汉语被动句译成英语被动句 这个问题必须以适当的方式予以处理 The problem must be dealt with by appropriate means. 发电机的转速是受原动机控制的。 The speed of the generator is controlled by the prime mover.,塑料制品不会为水所损坏 Plastic articles are not damaged by water. 许多汽车发动机都是用水冷却的。 Many car engines are cooled by water. 2)汉语主动句译成英语被动句 软件的出口享受优惠利率的信贷支持。 The export of sofeware is backed by credit with concessionary interest rates.,当两个物体一起摩擦，电子便从一个物体转到另一个物体上。 When two objects are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one object to the other.,3）汉语习惯用语译成被动语态 大家知道，宇宙万物都有在不断地运动和变化。 It is known to all that everything in the universe is in constant motion and constant change. 据悉it is learned that 据推测it is supposed that .,4)汉语无主名译成英语被动句 要把必要的资料收集起来，加以分析。 The necessary quantity of data should be collected and analyzed. 随差工业的发展，将生产出更快的喷气式飞机。 With the rapid development of industry, more and faster jet planes will be produced.,4. Supplementary readings,Style of writing The format of writing scientific papers described so far is not a difficult thing to grasp. Scientific academic writing, however, is much more than just knowing this format. More awkward for the Chinese students is the style of writing, which is the way you put a sentence or a group of sentences together.,The results of very poor writing style is Chinglish. Many students probably realise when sentences are not stronger, clearer, and more effective. The problem is they often feel that they know what want to show but do not know how to express it in writing. Again, this has much to do with language difference.,Chinese writing tends to be rather abstract. Although some English writing can also be abstract, scientific English is rarely the case. Thus if Chinese writing is translated into English writing, the science reader will be left wondering what you are trying to say.,As you will discover, scientific English should be unambiguous and easy to read, as well as being to the point. Different readers have different ideas about what constitutes good writing styles; the critical thing for the Chinese student is that other people must be able to understand what you write.,A piece of writing that appears clear only to yourself and no-one else in clearly an unacceptable form of communication. Many students tend to think the use of complicated (or “big”) words is what academic writing is all about.,On the contrary, scientific academic writing is not sound intelligent, but to get your intelligent point across, and as uncomplicated as possible. This, however, does not mean you write like how you would speak in a conversation. Both speaking and writing require good command of grammar, but writing further calls for style, as well as spelling and punctuation.,Much more thought is needed to put your sentences together when writing than speaking. Consider the three different styles of writing below: 1)Population ecology is an important field of study on organisms. Variations in population dynamics affect biological conservation.,Population genetics provides a good theory for the study of generational change in populations. 2)Population ecology concerns with the change in populations over time and their interactions with the surrounding environment. It is important in biological conservation because it studies how populations of organisms respond to their environment over time.,3)Population genetics is a branch of population ecology that concerns with the change in genotypes of a population from generation to generation. Many conservationists today rely on genetic techniques to make predictions about a population.,Example 1)contains statements which when viewed together do not seem to have a central focus is the author trying to draw a readers attention to population ecology, biological conservation, or population genetics?,In example 2) the focus is clearly on the importance of populatio