语言学讲义考研5Semantics.ppt

1,讲义五 Semantics,Grace Tan,考研语言学 谭宗燕,2,考点,语义学定义 语义三角说 LEECH的七种意义类型 词汇意义关系(同义,反义,下义) 识别各实例中词与词的意义关系，句与句间的蕴涵、前提、回话含义、同义、不相容、语义矛盾、语义反常等 用成分分析同下义词、反义词、句子意义的区别 反义词的种类及例子,考研语言学 谭宗燕,3,T/F,The meaning relationship between MAN and Grown-up is hyponymous because the semantic features of man are included in those of grown-up. Semantically, beef is excluded in meat. Kids and children are synonyms despite their stylistic differences. In the following pairs of sentences , b presupposes a. A.John managed to finish in time. B.John tried to finish in time. In the semiotic triangle, there is no direct relationship between symbol and referent. If a word has sense, it must have reference. Predication of a S is identical to the proposition of the S.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,4,definition,Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,5,24. _ is the major concern of semantics. A. meaning B. words C. sentence structure D. phrase structure rules Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,6,some views concerning the study of meaning,G. Leech and his 7 types of meaning Naming theory The Conceptualist View Contextualism Behaviorism Truth conditions,考研语言学 谭宗燕,7,1. Leech divided meaning into _ types. 2.说文：“要，身中也。”&墨子经说：昔楚灵王好细要。”“要”属于意义。,考研语言学 谭宗燕,8,考研语言学 谭宗燕,9,Grammatical Meaning & Lexical Meaning,Grammatical meaning indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm. (语法意义指词义中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义。例如词类、名词的单复数、动词的时态意义及它们的屈折形式。) inflectional paradigms of verb: forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting,考研语言学 谭宗燕,10,For example : girls, winters, tables, joys We notice that word-forms, though denoting different objects of reality, have something in common. This common element is the grammatical meaning of plurality. (They have the same grammatical meaning),考研语言学 谭宗燕,11,Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. (林承璋：词汇意义是词典中一个独立词的意义。在该词的所有形式中，其词汇意义相同。） For example : The word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person, and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component (same lexical meaning ).,考研语言学 谭宗燕,12,2. Conceptual Meaning & Associative Meaning,Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. 概念意义是词典中所给的意义，是词义的核心。 E.g. a woman is defined as an adult female human being.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,13,Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc. 联想意义是概念意义的补充意义，是次要意义。它受语言外界因素如文化、经历、宗教、地域、出身、教育等的影响而变化，所以是开放性的，是不定的。 Four Categories：,考研语言学 谭宗燕,14,考研语言学 谭宗燕,15,1) Connotative Meaning,It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. 内涵意义是由概念意义产生的言外之意或联想。 What connotations do you think “home”, “dragon” and “mother” might have?,考研语言学 谭宗燕,16,2) Stylistic Meaning,Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. 很多词除了其概念意义外，还有文体色彩，以适应不同的文体风格。 In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal, informal, literary, archaic, slang and so on.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,17,Compare the following two groups of synonyms:,leave job cant tired ad,depart position cannot fatigued advertisement,考研语言学 谭宗燕,18,3) Affective Meaning,Affective meaning expresses the speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words. 情感意义反映作者或说话人对所谈论的人或物、事态等表示的个人情感或态度。这种意义可以通过选用表情词直接了当地表现出来。,考研语言学 谭宗燕,19,Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative and pejorative/derogative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,20,appreciative pejorative,elderly little famous slim/slender determined statesman confidence farmer publicity,old small notorious skinny pigheaded politician complacency peasant propaganda,考研语言学 谭宗燕,21,4) Collocative Meaning,It is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. 搭配意义即与之一起使用的词语所赋予的那部分意义。 E.g. pretty woman and handsome woman -stress the attractiveness of facial features -may not be facially beautiful but slender figure, graceful posture and behavior green hand, green fruit, green with envy, green-eyed monster,考研语言学 谭宗燕,22,考研语言学 谭宗燕,23,12. _ is NOT included in Leechs associative meaning. A. connotative meaning B. social meaning C. collocative meaning D. thematic meaning Answer: D,考研语言学 谭宗燕,24,conceptualist view,This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e, between language and the real world) rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,25,16. The classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance mainly illustrates the view of _. A. conceptualism B. contextualism C. behaviourism D. structuralism Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,26,semantic triangle,thought/reference (concept, sense) Symbol (word) referent (thing) Suggested by Ogden and Richards,考研语言学 谭宗燕,27,SYMBOL or FORM - the linguistic elements in its sound or written form (words, phrases) the REFERENT - the object in the world of experience THOUGHT or REFEREBCE - concept (cognitive image in the mind),考研语言学 谭宗燕,28,13. _ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. A. sense B. reference C. symbol D. thought Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,29,23. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of _. A. word function B. word meaning C. word formation D. word system Answer: B,考研语言学 谭宗燕,30,Sense & Reference,Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Dictionary meaning. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world,考研语言学 谭宗燕,31,东大2000,Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following 4 aspects: 1) a word having reference must have sense 2) a word having sense might not have reference 3) a certain sense can be realized by more than one reference 4)a certain reference can be expressed by more than one sense Key:2) non-referring items:so, very, maybe, if, not and all; imaginary things:god, ghost, dragon 3) I, you, she variable references 4) Evening star and morning star nearly always refers to Venus,BUT each presents a particular emotional temperament and a particular sense of values, meaning, ideals and appreciations.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,32,The relationship between sense and reference: And, if等只有sense, 而无reference. Desk可以有许多外指意义。 同一外指意义可有不同的系统意义，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,33,Words are the symbols of mental expressions. The limits of my language is the limits of my world. What is the relationship between language and thought? 赫拉克利特，亚里斯多德，阿尔诺，洛克，休谟,Dessert,考研语言学 谭宗燕,34,17. The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from_. A. function B. context C. instinct D. observation Answer: B,考研语言学 谭宗燕,35,Contextualism,Firth, Halliday They hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use and context . Two kinds of context are recognizes: the situational context and the linguistic context.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,36,Behaviorism,Behaviorists: Pavlov, Thorndike, Waltson Bloomfield (stimulus-response) Jill Jack S rs R (r,s-speech, R,S-practical events),考研语言学 谭宗燕,37,9. The well-known formula: S rs R was put forward by_. A. Bloomfield B. Firth C. Hockett D. Harris Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,38,11. For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology and specifically of the brand of psychology known as _. A. behaviorism B. structuralism C. competence D. performance Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,39,3. That there is no direct link between language and the real world is the view of _ concerning the study of meaning. A. naming B. conceptualist C. contextualist D. behaviorist Answer: B,?,考研语言学 谭宗燕,40,lexical meaning,Synonymy Antonymy Polysemy Homonymy Hyponymy,考研语言学 谭宗燕,41,5. The relation between “food” and “bread” is called _. A. synonymy B. polysemy C. homonymy D. hyponymy Answer: D,考研语言学 谭宗燕,42,Synonymy,dialectal synonyms stylistic synonyms synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning collocational synonyms semantically different synonyms,考研语言学 谭宗燕,43,14. Luggage and baggage are _ synonyms. A. dialectal B. stylistic C. semantically different D. collocational Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,44,20. The words “amaze” and “astound” are very close in meaning, they are _ synonyms. A. dialectal B. stylistic C. semantically different D. collocational Answer: C,考研语言学 谭宗燕,45,21. Which pair is the emotive synonyms? A. dad and father B. flat and apartment C. mean and frugal D. charge and accuse Answer: C,考研语言学 谭宗燕,46,Antonymy,gradable antonym complementary antonymy converse antonymy,考研语言学 谭宗燕,47,19. The word “male” or “female” are _ antonyms. A. gradable B. complementary C. converse D. complete Answer: B,考研语言学 谭宗燕,48,10. _ is a pair of complementary antonyms. A. wild and tame B. nimble and lame C. cold and warm D. alive and dead Answer: D,考研语言学 谭宗燕,49,7. “Buy” and “sell” form a pair of _. A. conversives B. gradable antonyms C. complementary antonyms D. marked antonyms Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,50,Homonymy,Homophones Homographs Complete homonyms,考研语言学 谭宗燕,51,22. The words” rain” and “reign” are _. A. homographs B. complete homonyms C. homophones D. allophones Answer: C,考研语言学 谭宗燕,52,15. _ is Not a pair of homophones. A. “Fair” (adj) and “fair” (n) B. “Flea” and “flee” C. “Lead (v) and “lead” (n) D. “Compliment” and “complement” Answer: C,考研语言学 谭宗燕,53,The relationship between “meat” and “meet” is _. A. synonymy B. antonymy C. polysemy D. homonymy,考研语言学 谭宗燕,54,The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are _. A. homophones B. homographs C. complete homonyms D. allophones Answer: B,考研语言学 谭宗燕,55,polysemy,18. If one word has more than one meaning, then we call it _. A. polysemy B. synonymy C. homonymy D. hyponymy Answer: A,考研语言学 谭宗燕,56,大连2002,Classify the following pairs of words according to the sense relation,. Put the number before the pair in the space provided .eg: (1)alive/dead (2)buy/sell Complementary antonyms(1) 1.always/never 2.borrow/lend 3.tale/tail 4.satellite/moon 5.relinquish/retain 6.boot/trunk 7.over/under 8.mercury/quick silver 9.fabric/rayon 10.sole(of a shoe)/sole(the fish) A.Complementary antonyms_ B.synonyms _ C.relational opposites _ D.gradable antonyms _ E.homonyms _ F.polysemy _ G.hyponymy _ 1/5,8,2/7,3/10,6,4/9,考研语言学 谭宗燕,57,湖南师大2003,What relationship do they have between each other? A.tree-maple, birch b.flour-flower C.lend-borrow d.male-female E.big-small Key: hyponymy, homonymy, relational opposites, complementarity, gradability,考研语言学 谭宗燕,58,北师大2003,Put the following words in a hierarchical order(you can use a tree diagram ) and try to define at least two of them. crocodile,mammal, reptile, rabbit, primate, animal,考研语言学 谭宗燕,59,东大2003,What are the possible colors of Chinese 青 in english? What does this reflect in semantics? Key: blue as in 青取之于蓝而青于蓝 black as in 青牛白马 dark green as in两岸青山相对出， 青箬笠绿蓑衣 This reflects that the same word may have a set of different meanings, that is, the polysemy of a word.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,60,Componential Analysis (CA),The analysis of word meanings or componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components. HUMAN MALE ADULT Girl + - - Boy + + - Woman + - + Man + + +,考研语言学 谭宗燕,61,In making componential analysis, it is important to focus on the distinguishing features, i.e. features which can distinguish one word from another. Eg: Between boy, chair, dictionary and hope, thought, problem, the distinguish feature is +Concrete verbs like nouns also have features like MOMENTARY DYNAMIC TRANSITIVE,62,考研语言学 谭宗燕,English motion verbs,63,考研语言学 谭宗燕,More complex ones,father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) x is a parent of y, and x is male. take: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y) x causes x to have y. give: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y) x causes x not to have y. die=BECOME(x,(ALIVE(x) Kill=CAUSE(x,(BECOME(y(ALIVE(y) Murder=INTEND(x,(CAUSEx,(BECOME(y),(ALIVE(y),考研语言学 谭宗燕,64,The function of componential analysis 1.useful and revealing technique for demonstrating relations of meaning between words. dog +ANIMATE, -HUMAN, +CANINE,+DOMESTIC foal +ANIMATE, -HUMAN, +EQUINE,+DOMESTIC 2.show the synonymy of two items by giving them same componential features. Spinster and maiden +HUMAN,-MALE,-MARRIED POSITIVE,考研语言学 谭宗燕,65,3.tell whether a certain collocation or syntactic structure is acceptable or not. He has left this neighborhood for ten years. He has lived in this neighborhood for ten years. left, live MOMENTARY, Controversial：semanticists do not agree on the merits of componential analysis. 1.useful but limited 2.how about the figurative sense,考研语言学 谭宗燕,66,6. The semantic components of the word “man” can be expressed as_. A. +animate, +human, +male, adult B. + animate, +human, +male, +adult C. + animate, +human, -male, -adult D. + animate, +human, -male, +adult Answer: B,考研语言学 谭宗燕,67,8. _ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of the meaning of each constituent word. A. collocation B. idiom C. semantic component D. synonym Answer: B,考研语言学 谭宗燕,68,Analyze hyponymy and incompatibility by using componential analysis. Key:THE analysis of hyponymy: man :+HUMAN+ADULT+MALE woman:+HUMAN+ADULT-MALE boy:+HUMAN-ADULT+MALE girl:+HUMAN-ADULT-MALE The analysis of incompatibility: Alive:-DEAD (or+LIVE) Dead:+DEAD(or-LIVE),考研语言学 谭宗燕,69,Sentence relation,(1) X is synonymous with Y（同义关系）In terms of truth conditioning, if X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false. X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married in his life. X: The boy killed the dog. Y: The dog was killed by the boy.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,70,(2) X is inconsistent with Y（矛盾关系）In terms of truth conditioning, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor. X: This is my first visit to your country Y: I have been to your country before.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,71,(3) X entails Y（衍推关系）Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond. X: He has been to France. Y: He had been to Europe. If X is true, Y is necessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true of false, e.g. If he has not been to France, he may have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,72,(4) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)（预设关系） X: Johns bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. X: The queen of England is old. Y: England has a queen. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If Johns bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e.g. If Johns bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,73,(5) X is a contradiction（自相矛盾句） When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false, e.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,74,(6) X is semantically anomalous（语义反常句） e.g. The table has bad intensions. When X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction. The sentence above presupposes “A table can have intensions”, which is obviously absurd.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,75,湖南大学2004,Of the five semantic relations among sentences: paraphrase, entailment, contradiction, presupposition and tautology. Which of the following is exemplified in each pairs? A. I saw Timothy at the party. it was Timothy that I saw at theparty. B.The orphan has no father. C.Jules is Marys husband. Mary is married. D.Vera is an only child. Olga is Veras sister. E. The mayor of Manchester is a woman. There is a mayor in Manchester. KEY: paraphrase, tautology, entailment, contradiction, presupposition,考研语言学 谭宗燕,76,广外2004,The following sentences make certain presuppositons. What are they? a.The police ordered the minors to stop drinking. B.Please take me out to the ball game again. C.valerie regretted not receiving a new T-bird for Labor Day. D.That her pet turtle ran away made Emily very sad. E.The administration forgot that the profs support the students. F.It is strange that the united states invaded Cambodia in 1970. G.Isnt it strange that ? H. Disa wants more popcorn. I.Why do not pigs have wings? J.Who discovered America in 1492?,考研语言学 谭宗燕,77,湖大,Account for the difference between sentence a and b in terms of presupposition. A. John admitted that the team has lost. B.John said that the team has lost.,考研语言学 谭宗燕,78,上海交大,What seems to be the oddness in each of the following sentences in terms of semantic features? A. the television drank my cup of tea. B. he murdered the stone ruthlessly. Semantically anomalous,考研语言学 谭宗燕,79,北外2001,In the use of gradable antonyms, there is generally one member of the pair that is called the unmarked member. This unmarked member is used more often than the other