大学英语四六级写作模板.ppt

写作辅导,PartThree组段与谋篇,写作中的段落,1.段落的组成通常情况下，一个段落由三部分组成：1)主题句（TopicSentence）:点出段落的主题（谈论什么）。2)扩展句（DevelopingSentence）:说明和支持主题。3)结尾句（ConcludingSentence）:得出结论。,2.主题句每个段落只能有一个主题，即是只能有一个主题句。主题提出后需要很多结构严谨的句子来支持和说明，称为扩展句。最后得出一个结论，并用一个结尾句表达。参看下面段落：（主题句）SlaveryintheUnitedStatesexistedalmostunchangedfor250years.(扩展句1)Duringthistime,mostslaveswerenotallowedtomarryortoraisefamilies.(扩展句2)Usuallytheywerenotallowedtolearntoread.(扩展句3)Itwasverydangerousforaslavetotravel,sinceevenfreeNegroescouldbekidnappedandsoldatanytime.(结尾句)Undertheseconditions,itwasalmostimpossibleforthemtoorganizetohelpeachother.,Mymotherhastoldcertainrulesforgettingalongwithothers.Dontarguewithparents;theywillthinkyoudontlovethem.Dontarguewithchildren;theywillthinkthemselvesvictimized.Dontarguewithspouses;theywillthinkyouareatiresomemate.Dontarguewithstrangers;theywillthinkyouarenotfriendly.Mymothersrules,infact,canbesummedupintwowords:Dontargue.PerhapsmorethananyotherpeopleAmericanshavecometodependontheircars.Thefamilycarhasbeenacommonthingsinceearly20thcentury,andithaschangedAmericanlife.Manypeoplehavemovedoutsideofthelargecitiestothesuburbs.SomeAmericansspendtwohoursadayormoreintheircarsgoingtoworkandhomeagain.CarshavebecomethemeansoftransportationformostAmericans.,Similarly,inordertowritesuccessfulanswerstoessayquestionsonhistoryoranthropologyexaminations,astudentmustarrangetherelevantfactsandopinionsaccordingtosomeacceptedpatternofparagraphstructure.AndcertainlywhenastudentwritesabookreportforEnglish,oracritiquesforpoliticsstudies,oratermpaperforsociology,styleandorganizationareoftenasimportantascontent.Clearly,theabilitytowritewellorganized,conciseparagraphsandessaysisessentialtoastudentssuccessinalmostalluniversitycourses.,2.1写好主题句的宏观方法：1)主题句要概括一定内容，不要空泛，否则扩展句将难以说明和支持它，例如：空泛：Englishlanguageisveryimportant.概括：Englishlanguageisveryimportantinourdailylife.空泛：TheOlympicGamesareexciting.概括：IntheOlympicGamesthefootballteamsfrommanycountriescompeteintensely.,2)尽量使用简单句或简洁明了的句子：简洁：Collectingstampsisherhobby.复杂:Shelikescollectingstampswhichisherhobby.简洁:IenjoyedwatchingGonewiththewindverymuch.复杂：GonewiththewindwasagoodfilmwhichIenjoyedwatchingverymuch.,3)主题句应该做到句子完整和表达的主题思想完整：不完整：Howtowriteacomposition.完整：Howtowriteacompositionisnotaneasythingtotalkabout.不完整：Iftheweatherwasfine.完整：Iftheweatherwasfine,wewouldhavehadagoodtime.,4)写好主题句中的关键词关键词是直接表达主题的词汇，它决定段落的内容和展开的方法，引导整个段落的发展，例如：Thereareseveralwaystoboilthewater.Thetaskcanbefinishedinthreesteps.Thereisanewmethodtoreducethecost.,3.拓展句扩展句紧扣主题句中的关键词而展开，句子与句子之间逻辑清楚，上下转承结合得当，简明扼要，重点突出。一般来说，每个自然段除了主题句与结尾句之外，还包含了36个扩展句。Nowadays,thecomputerhasfoundwideapplicationsinmanyareas.Itisusednotonlyincalculations,butalsoengineeringproject,designing,languagelearning,etc.Intodayssociety,computerscanbeseenworkingforusalmosteverywhere,inshops,banks,postoffices,schools,hospitalsandsoon.Computershaveevenenteredmostfamilies.Childrencanlearnvarioussubjectsoncomputers,andparentscanenjoysomeentertainmentfromthecomputers,too.,一旦定下了主题和关键词，作者便按照自己的思路来组织段落中的句子，句子之间要具有连贯性，就必须由一系列的逻辑关系构成，例如：并列关系，因果关系，递进关系，转折关系，解释关系，概括关系，顺序关系，让步关系，对照比较关系，转换关系等等，这些逻辑关系可由一系列的过渡词来完成。过渡词在句子与句子之间、段落与段落之间起到承上启下的作用，使句子或段落之间的衔接自然、连贯，逻辑合理，结构严谨，故极为重要。构成时间关系的过渡词有：first,inthefirstplace,sincethen,thereafter,therefore,lately,later,meanwhile,atlast等。构成空间关系的过渡词有：before,behind,below,between,beyond,farther,infrontof,nearto,nextto,over,under,up,closeto等。,3.1写好拓展句的注意事项1）避免写出与主题不相关的句子。ThereareseveralwaystoimproveourEnglishwritingskillsandkeepingadiaryinEnglishissurelyoneofthem.Comparedwithotherformsofwriting,itisshorterandtakeslesstime.MymotheradvisedmetowritediarywhenIwasveryyoung.ItcanhelpuscultivatethehabitofthinkinginEnglish.Ifwecankeepthispractice,wewillgraduallylearnhowtoexpressourselvesinEnglish.,2）混合使用简单句、并列句、复合句和短语等。如果段落中都是一种结构的句子，虽然都能支持主题句，但内容仍读起来单调。句式有变化，文章读起来才有活力，令人回味。Therearealsomanyquite,privatethingsthatIenjoydoing.(主从复合句)Iwouldspendawholedayreadingabook,andIsometimestayuplateatnightreadingagoodnovel.(并列句)WhenIamtiredofphysicalactivities,ImayfindagoodmoviesoralightTVprogramveryentertaining.(主从复合句)Inshort,Iliketodomanydifferentkindsofthings,dependingonthemoodIaminandthekindofpeopleIaminandthekindofpeopleIamaround.(简单句，分词短语作状语),3)定义法当段落的主题阐述“是什么”（Whatis）时，便可用定义法。定义法用一段话来解释说明某事物的性质和特征等，定义的对象可以是一个抽象的概念或具体的事物，包括性质、特征、结构、用途、行为、原理、来源等。例如：Whatishonesty?Honestymeansspeakingthetruthandbeingfairanduprightinact.Honestyisagoodvirtue.Hewholiescheatsisdishonest.Thosewhogainfortunes,notbyhardlabor,butbyothermeansaredishonest.定义法常用法表达方法有：whatis/tobedefinedas/toreferto/thedefinitionofis/tobeusedtodescribe/inaveryrealsense/inalimitedsense/thisis/thismeans/beexplained/statethat/inotherwords/namely等。,4)因果法当段落的主题要解释“为什么”（Why）时，便可采用“因果法”。因果法根据事物的原因推导出来结果，它以事实和证据为根据，前后过程合乎逻辑和常理。Healthisaconditionofwisdom,andasignofcheerfulness.(果)Ifamanisinpoorhealth,hewillhavemanytroublesandsufferagreatdeal.(因)Hehastospendmuchtimeandmoneytogotoahospitalforexaminationsandtreatment.(因)Inaddition,hisrelativesandfriendshavetotakecareofhim,(因)Inthissense,poorhealthbringstroubletoothersaswellastothepatienthimself.(因)Asweknow,happinessandsuccessdependonachievementsandprogress.(因)Goodhealthisoneofthemanyfactorsthatleadtoachievementandsuccess,andthebasisofthemishealth.(因),因果法常用法表达方法有：because/since/as/seeingthat/thereasonwhyisbecauseof/onaccountof/dueto/so/thus/hence/therefore/accordingly/consequently/sothat/asaresultof/inconsequenceof/resultin/resultfrom/leadto/soasto/owingto/tohaveaneffecton/forthereason/inthisway等。,5)比较与对比法当段落的主题要指出两件以上事物的相同或相异之处时，便可采用比较或对比的方法。“比较”阐述所比对象的相似之处：“对比”阐述所比对象不同之处。比较和对比一般采用两种方法来组织：1）对两项或多项事的异同之处逐点进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，B1，A2，B2；A3，B3。2）对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐项进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，A2，A3;B1,B2,B3;。,（1）比较ParagraphandEssayDespitetheirobviousdifferencesinlength,theparagraphandtheessayarequitesimilarstructurally.Forexample,theparagraphisintroducedbyeitheratopicsentenceoratopicintroducerfollowedbyatopicsentence.Intheessaythefirstparagraphprovidesintroductorymaterialandestablishesthetopicsentence.Similarly,thebodyofanessayconsistsofanumberofparagraphsthatexpandandsupporttheideaspresentedintheintroductoryparagraph.Finally,aterminator-whetherarestatement,conclusion,orobservation-endstheparagraph.Theessay,too,hasadevicewhichbringsitsideastoalogicallyandpsychologicallysatisfyingcompletion:theconcludingparagraph.Althoughexceptionstothesegeneralizationsmaybeobservedinmoderncreativewriting,mostwellwrittenexpositoryparagraphsandessaysarecomparableinstructure.本段文章对段落和文章在结构上相似之处作了细致的比较，方法为：A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；。,（2）对比：Thereisanessentialdifferencebetweenanewsstory,asunderstoodbyanewspapermanorawire-servicewriter,andthenewsmagazinestory.Thechiefpurposeoftheconventionalnewsstoryistotellwhathappened.Itstartswiththemostimportantinformationandcontinuesintoincreasinglyinconsequentialdetails,notonlybecausethereadermaynotreadbeyondthefirstparagraphbutbecauseaneditorworkingongalleyproofsafewminutesbeforepresstimelikestobeabletocutfeelyfromtheendofthestory.Anewsmagazineisverydifferent.Itiswrittentobereadconsecutivelyfrombeginningtoend,andeachofitsstoriesisdesigned,followingthecriticaltheoriesofEdgarAllenPoe,tocreateoneemotionaleffect.Thenews,whathappenedthatweek,maybetoldinthebeginning,themiddle,ortheend;forthepurposeisnottothrowinformationatthereaderbuttoreducehimintoreadingthewholestory,andintoacceptingthedramaticpointbeingmade.本段文章就传统新闻报道和新闻杂志报道的不同之处进行了鲜明的对比，采用A1，A2，A3；B1，B2，B3；的方法。,比较和对比法常用的过渡词有：like/likewise/unlike/similarly/inthesameway/ontheotherhand/comparewith/bycomparison/incontrastto/onthecontrary/but/despite/yet/instead/while/whereas/however/nevertheless/although/eventhough/conversely/differentfrom/equallyimportant/inspiteof/instead/inthesamemanner/still等。,6)举例或例证法当段落的主题为一理论性论点时，就需要举例或例证来加以支持，以说服读者。举例和例证使抽象的概念具体化，而所举的事例也应该具有充分的说服力，同时逻辑严密。例如：Inmanycountriescigarettesmokingisrestrictedinmanyways.TakeBritainforanexample,cigarettesarenotallowedtobeadvertisedonTVorradio;theAmericangovernmentrequiresmanufacturerstoprintthewarningthatsmokingisdangeroustohealthoneverypackageofcigarettes;inourcountryaregulationisbeingdraftedbanningthesaleoftobaccoproductstopeopleundereighteen.Thereisnodoubtthattheworld-wideanti-smokingcampaignswillmakemoreandmorepeoplebeawareofthedangerofsmokingandbecomeconsciousfightersforcleanerair.,Therearemanydifferentformsofexercisestosuitdifferenttastes.Forexample,thosewhoenjoycompetitivesportsmaytakeupballgames.Foranotherexample,iftheyprefertoexercisealone,theycanhavearunortakeawalkinthemorningorintheevening.Besides,peoplecangoswimminginthesummerandgoskatinginthewinter.Inshort,nomatterwhattheirinterestsare,peoplecaneasilyfindmorethanonesportsthataresuitabletothem.,举例或例法常用的过渡词有：forexample/forinstance/foronething/foranother/toillustrate/oneexampleis/tobeginwith/first,second,furthermore,besides,inaddition,moreover,finally,inconclusion,insummary/also/acaseinpoint/asanillustration/incidentally/namely/thatis等。,7)分类法按性质、特征、形态、功用、成因等等属性将某一种人或事物进行分类而发展段落的方法先由主题句提出分类，再由扩展句一一加以陈述和说明。例如：Examinationsareofthreekinds.Oneisthemachine-scored“objective”type.Inanobjectivetest,thestudentsanswerquestionsbydecidingonthebestchoiceamonganumberofalternativesgive.Anotheristhe“completion”type.Thiskindofexaminationrequiresthestudentstoaddawordorphrasetoasentence.Andthethirdtypeisessayexamination,inwhichthestudentsareaskedtowriteacompositiononagiventopic.Allthesekindsofexaminationsaredesignedtorevealwhatastudentmayhavelearnedinanyparticularcourse.,分类法常用的过渡词用：todivideinto/toclassifyinto/groupinto/tofallintoclasses/therearekinds(types,groups,classes,categories,sorts)of/accordingto/intermsof/dependingon/atthelevelof等。,4.结论句结论句一般用来总结段落的中心思想，将段落的内容进行归纳总结，引发读者对段落的进一步认识，同时在段落中起着段意收尾的工作。此外，段落结论句要简明扼要，并符合主题句的主旨，但不能简单的重复。Therearemanyproblemswithadvertisements.Sometimes,peopleconsiderthemasbadthingsbecausemanyofthegoodssoundgoodbutdonotprovetobeso.Someadvertisementsareratherconfusing,andoftendeceiveconsumersintobuyinggoodsofpoorquality.Thesolutiontotheseproblemsisthatanecessarylawshouldbeworkedout,otherwise,someadvertisementswillbeharmfultothesociety.,英文写作中的篇章1.英语文章的结构英语的整篇文章结构类似于中文中的支撑段（由主题句、拓展句和结论句构成）的结构，一般由以下三部分构成（主要针对说明文和议论文）引言段：说出文中的要点及核心问题正文段：围绕主题展开叙述和讨论结尾段：对全文总结和概括,引言段（开场白）的写作技巧）用引语揭示文章的主要内容Hegel,theGermanphilosopher,says,“Welearnfromhistorythatmenneverlearnanythingfromhistory.”Thisremarkhasbeenconfirmedagainandagainbyhistoricalevents,oneofwhichisHitlersinvasionoftheSovietUnion.,2)利用指令情景“改写、扩写”2002年TEM4作文TheBestWaytoKeepHealthy指令如下：a)Nowadayspeoplearebecomingincreasinglyawareoftheimportanceofhealth.b)Andtheyhavedifferentwaystostayhealthy.c)Forexample,someexerciseeveryday;otherstrytokeepbalanceddiet.d)Whatdoyouthinkisthebestwaytostayhealthy?针对作文指令的分析不难得出以下论点：a.说明人们对健康越来越重视；b.表明人们保持健康的不同方法；c.要求考生表态，阐明自己的观点。Today,withtheimprovementoflivingstandard,peopleattachmoreandmoreimportancetohealth.Theyaretryingtofindvariouswaystokeephealthy.Somedophysicalexerciseeveryday,butotherspreferkeepingabalanceddiet.AsfarasIamconcerned,doingphysicalexercisesisabetterchoicetostayhealthy.,3)主题法开门见山式开场白最简单直接的写法是在段落开始就直截了当表明自己的观点，然后对论点稍加解释说明，以便为下文发展做准备。TheBestWaytoKeepHealthyTherearevariouswaysofkeepinghealthy,butsleepisdefinitelythebasicelementtostayfit.Ihaveseveralreasonstosupportmyview.,4)引言（数据、格言等）自己的观点Honesty:IsItGoingOutofStyle?Accordingtoarecentpoll,61percentofAmericanhighschoolstudentshaveadmittedcheatingonexamsatleastonce.Itcanbearguessucharesponsemaynotmeanmuch.Afterall,moststudentshavebeenfacedwiththetemptationtopeekataneighborstestpaper.Andstudentscanbehardonthemselvesinjudgingsuchbehavior.However,thereareotherindicationsthathighschoolcheatingmaybeontherise.,TravelBroadensOurEyesAsaChineseoldsayinggoes,travelingtenthousandmilesandreadingtenthousandbooksisthetopidealforpeople.Traveldoesbroadenourmind.Itenablesustoappreciatebeautifulscenery,valuethecultureandcustomsofapeopleandlearnthehistory.,5)定义法通过对文章要讨论的主题，尤其是人们不太熟悉的主题进行释义来引出讨论ShouldEuthanasiabeAdvocated?Euthanasia,aquietandeasydeath,or“mercykilling”,hasbecomeaheatedtopicamongpeoplerecently.Manypeopleapplauditandarguethateuthanasiashouldbeadvocatedinoursociety.,6)对立法对立法指在文章的开头列举人们对所讨论的问题所持的不同观点，然后点处作者自己对这个问题的看法，此方法一般用于论述、说明相结合的题目中。MyViewonEasingSchoolChildrensStudyBurdenEversincetheeasingofschoolchildrensstudyburdenisadvocatedbyeducators.Someteachersandparentsfrownatit,sayingthatitwillexertbadeffectsonthechildren.However,Ithinkeasingschoolchildrensstudyburdenwilldogoodtoschoolchildrenbothphysicallyandmentally.,3.如何结尾1)阐明中心思想回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，达到再次肯定和强调的效果。a.Asenseofhumorisreallyoneofthekeystohappiness.Itgiveszesttolifetomakeitworthliving.b.Withallthesebenefits,itisnowonderthatsportsandgameshavenowbecomemorepopularwithpeoplethanever.,2)做出结论文章最后用几句话概括全文内容，并进一步肯定文章中心思想或作者观点。a.Inconclusion,agoodteacher-studentrelationshipcanbemutualbeneficial.Thestudentsgainknowledgeeagerlyandenjoyable,andtheteachergainssatisfactionfromhisjob.b.OnthewholetherearemoreadvantagesthandisadvantagesintheuseofTV.YetdifferentpeoplemayhavedifferentattitudestowardTV.Butwemustrealizethattelevisioninitselfisneithergoodnorbad.Itsvaluetopeopleandsocietydependsonhowwelookatit.,3)应用引语用格言、谚语总结全文a.Ifyouhaveanythingtodo,trytodoityourself,forthatisthesafestwaytopermanentsuccess.Rememberthefamoussaying,“Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.”b.Ifwesticktostudiesdayafterday,thereisnothingthatcantbeachieved.Asanoldsayinggoes:“Constantdroppingofwaterwearsawayastone.”,4)用反问结尾虽然从形式上看是问句，但意义却是肯定的，具有明显强调作用，引起读者思考。a.Therefore,listeningskillsmustbeconsciouslyimproved.Sinceitissuchanimportantmeansoflearningandcommunication,whyshouldwenotdevelopthisabilityasfaraspossible?b.So,whatcanwebenefitfromwealthifwedonothavehealth?,5)提出希望或展望用来表示对将来的展望或期待读者投入行动。a.IamsurethatChinesewillbecomeoneofthemostimportantlanguagesintheworldinthenextcentury.AsChinawillopenfurthertotheoutsideworldthelanguageissuretobespreadworldwidely.b.Ifeveryonehasdevelopedgoodmanners,peoplewillformamoreharmoniousrelation.Ifeveryonebehavesconsideratelytowardsothers,peoplewillliveinabetterworld.Withthegeneralmoodofsocietyimproved,therewillbeaprogressofcivilization.,文章段落的句子的“启、承、转、合”,在一篇文章中，各自然段，各句子都为文章的中心思想服务，各段落之间，句子与句子之间存在着某种逻辑关系。文章段落之间的逻辑关系主要由过渡词来完成，在修辞中称为启、承、转、合。“启”就是开头“承”是承接，“转”是转折，“合”是综合或总结，一篇文章与一段文章一样都有“启、承、转、合”关系。,WaystoBuyThings开头段(启)Indailylife,peopleneedtobuythingandservices.Somepeopletopreferpaymoneyforwhattheyneed.Otherpeopletradegoodsforwhattheyneed.Eachofthetwowayshasitsadvantages.Asweallknow,moneyisaconvenientmeansofexchange.Firstofall,itiseasytocarryabout,easytotransferfromonepersontoanother,fromoneplaceto扩展段(承)another.Whenwegoshoppingweneedntcarryloadsofgoodswithus.Anotheradvantagetopayingmoneyforthethingspeopleneedisthatmoneyenablespeopletomeasurecorrectlythevaluesofallkindsofgoodsandservices:tea,milk,salt,matches,furniture,dishes,cloth,automobiles,houses,thetimeandenergyspentbyadoctororfarmerorengineeronhiswork,theskillpossessedbyworkersandspecialistsofdifferentkinds.Inaddition,moneycaneasilybestoredinasafeplaceforuseatsomefuturetimewithoutlossinitsvalue.However,therearecasesinwhichpeoplehavetotradegoodsforthethingstheyneed,Forexample,aperson扩展段(转)whoneedssomethingbadlyandhappenstobepenniless,whatshouldhedo?Agoodsolutionforhimistotradethegoodshehasforthethingsheneeds.Foranotherexample,apersonneedssomethinganditsownerisreluctanttosellitunlesshegetsthethinghewants.Insuchcase,thepersonhastotradegoodsforwhatheneeds.Indirecttransactionofgoods,therealvalueofthegoodstransactedisnotmeasuredintermsofmoneybutbythebuyersappreciationofthegoods.Thepriceofthegoodsisusuallylowerbecausenoserviceoranyotherpersonisinvolved.结尾段(合)Asforme,IprefertopaymoneyforthethingsIneed,becauseIhavemoneyandIhavenogoodstotradeforothergoods,1.段落连接(1)“启”，常用于引导文章开头的过度词有：ItisoftensaidthatGenerallyspeakingAstheproverbsaysItgoeswithoutsayingthatItisclear/obviousthatManypeopleoftenask,(2)“承”，常用于第一个扩展段的过渡词有：ItistruethatEverybodyknowsthatItcanbeeasilyprovedthatNoonecandenythatOnethingwhichisequallyimportanttotheabovementionedisThechiefreasonwhyisthatWemustrecognizethatThereisnodoubtthatIamoftheopinionthatThiscanexpressedasfollowsTotakeforanexample(instance)There