商法导论.doc

1 What are the main differences between civil and criminal law in Scotland?Criminal law is to maintain law and order by punishing criminals. The punishments includes imprisonment and fine and so on.Civil law is to resolve legal disputes between individuals such as divorce, personal injury, contractual disputes, sale of goods, etc.Criminal and civil cases are dealt with by different courts, who use different proof rules and follow different procedure. The main differences are: Criminal law is primarily used by the State as a means of maintaining law and order by punishing certain individuals who indulge in such behavior that is regarded as criminal and anti-social. The State uses the criminal law, therefore, to punish criminals on behalf of the community or society as a whole. The civil justice system, in contrast with criminal law, aims to resolve legal disputes between private individuals in the areas as wide-ranging as family law, company law, partnership law, banking and finance law, sale of goods and services, consumer law, personal injury claims, trusts, defamation actions, succession issues and divorce. What courts, standards of proof and procedures should be adopted for a certain case then? It all depends on the nature of the case - whether a criminal action or a civil dispute. 2.(a) Which is the superior legislative body :the Westminster Parliament or the Scottish Parliament?(b) Explain your choice of answer in part above?The superior legislative body is the Westminster (or United Kingdom) Parliament.By the Act of Union in 1707, the previous Scottish Parliament was abolished. Ever since, the new Scottish Parliament is not a completely independent body. It is an inferior body in comparison to the Westminster Parliament, from which the Scottish Parliament derives its authority to pass laws for Scotland. Any legislation of the Scottish Parliament is considered to be secondary legislation NOT primary legislation. Surely a simple Act of the Westminster Parliament is all that it would take to abolish Scotlands Parliament, let alone the legislation by the latter.3List the main sources of Scots Law?The main sources of modern Scots Law are statute law, European Union law and common law.4. Name five Acts of Parliament.You are free to name any five acts of either the Westminster or Scottish Parliaments 1) Sale of Goods Act 1979, 2) Employment Rights Act 1996, 3) Protection of Children (Scotland) Act 20034) The Licensing (Scotland) Act 19755) The Divorce (Scotland) Act 1976.5, What is a statute?Acts of Parliament are often referred to as legislation or statute law. The Westminster Parliament (the national Parliament of the United Kingdom) alone made laws for Scotland until the creation of the Scottish Parliament, However, Westminster has given the Scottish Parliament authority in many different areas of policy to make statute law.6.(a )What are the four most important institutions of the European Union (b)which of the European Union institutions has law-making powers?(a) The four primary institutions of the European Union are as follows: The Council of Ministers; The European Parliament; The European Court of Justice; The European Commission(b) Speaking exactly The Council of Ministers, with the advice of the European Parliament, has the power to make laws for the people of Europe. The European Court of Justice enforces European Union Law. The European Commission is effectively the Unions civil service in the sense that it can propose laws (but it cannot actually legislate) and it can also bring breaches of the various European Union Treaties to the attention of the European Court of Justice. In this latter role, the Commission is often regarded as the Guardian of the various European Union Treaties.7. (a)What is meant by the doctrine of judicial precedent?(b) Please give an example of a judicial precedent.The doctrine of judicial precedent stare decisis involves such a process whereby a judge or judges can develop a rule of law by making a decision in a test case. A test case is the very case in which clarification of an important point of law is sought and judges, after listening to opposing legal arguments, will have to make the decision as to which view of the law is correct. Once this decision has been made, future judges and courts will be expected to follow the reasoning laid down in that test case if they are dealing with a case of similar legal issues. However, it should be stressed that not every judge can make a new, binding legal rule. The authority of the judge or the court will have to be considered first all. It is very unlikely that Junior judges like a Sheriff or a Justice of the Peace will be able to create a new rule of law. On the other hand, if the ruling came from superior courts, for example, the High Court of Justiciary or the House of Lords, this decision would have to be followed by the lower or inferior courts. Therefore, the position of the court matters greatly. Judicial precedent or case law is part of the unwritten law of Scotland.The well known case of Donoghue v Stevenson 1932 could be used as a good example of the doctrine of judicial precedent. (See 5.1.03 P.44)8. Provide three examples of a civil dispute.Examples of a civil dispute might include any of the following actions:* Family law disputes (custody or adoption of children).* Divorce or separation actions.* Debt recovery actions.* Defamation of character.* Tenor or authenticity of a lost document.9. (a)In a conflict between Scots and European Union Law, which one of the two legal systems are the Scottish Courts bound to follow?(b) Explain your answer?Such being the case, the Scottish Courts would have to obey the European Unions legal system.The European Union is a club of twenty-seven member states. Like most organizations or clubs, their members, in order to enjoy the benefits of membership, have to obey the rules or laws. UK has been a member of the EU since 1st January 1973 as a result of the passing of the European Communities Act 1972 by the Westminster Parliament. This legislation recognizes the supremacy of European law over domestic law. By the time Britain became a member of the European Union in 1973, many of the EU key laws were already in place and Britain had to accept these as the price of membership of the European Communities (now the Union). So, it would be safe to say that UK national law would never again reign supreme unless Britain decided to withdraw from membership of the European Union.10 What is a crime? (You should list four examples of criminal behavior)A crime is behavior which/that is regarded as so blameworthy and which, consequently/finally, threatens or undermines the security of society. Criminal behavior ought to be punished by the state - e.g. by means of the imposition of a prison sentence and/or fine or other sanction on the person who is convicted of a crime. Murder, rape, assault, fire-raising, theft and fraud are all criminal conducts11.(a )What are the four most important institutions of the European Union (b)which of the European Union institutions has law-making powers?(a) The four primary institutions of the European Union are as follows: The Council of Ministers; The European Parliament; The European Court of Justice; The European Commission.(b) Speaking exactly The Council of Ministers, with the advice of the European Parliament, has the power to make laws for the people of Europe. The European Court of Justice enforces European Union Law. The European Commission is effectively the Unions civil service in the sense that it can propose laws (but it cannot actually legislate) and it can also bring breaches of the various European Union Treaties to the attention of the European Court of Justice. In this latter role, the Commission is often regarded as the Guardian of the various European Union Treaties.12(a )What are the four most important institutions of the European Union (b)which of the European Union institutions has law-making powers?(a) The four primary institutions of the European Union are as follows: The Council of Ministers; The European Parliament; The European Court of Justice; The European Commission.(b) Speaking exactly The Council of Ministers, with the advice of the European Parliament, has the power to make laws for the people of Europe. The European Court of Justice enforces European Union Law. The European Commission is effectively the Unions civil service in the sense that it can propose laws (but it cannot actually legislate) and it can also bring breaches of the various European Union Treaties to the attention of the European Court of Justice. In this latter role, the Commission is often regarded as the Guardian of the various European Union Treaties.1什么是民法和刑法之间在苏格兰主要区别？刑法通过惩罚犯罪分子，以维持法律和秩序。该惩罚包括监禁和罚款等。民法是解决之间，如离婚，人身伤害，合同纠纷个人的法律纠纷，销售商品等刑事和民事案件的处理，由不同的法院，谁使用不同的证据规则，并按照不同的程序。其主要区别是：刑法是主要由国家作为维护谁的惩罚某些人沉醉于这种行为被视为法律和秩序的手段犯罪和反社会。该国使用刑律的，因此，惩罚对社区或整个社会的名义罪犯。民事司法制度与刑法的对比，目的是解决法律纠纷方面的个人之间的广泛的家庭法，公司法，合伙企业法，银行和金融法，商品和服务，消费者保护法出售不等，人身伤害索赔，信托，诽谤的行为，继承和离婚的问题。什么法庭，证明标准和程序应采用一定的情况呢？这一切都取决于案件的性质 - 是否有犯罪行为或民事纠纷。2（一），这是上级立法机构：。？西敏寺议会或苏格兰议会（b）解释你的答案选择部分以上？优越的立法机构是西敏寺（或英国）议会。到了1707年联合法案，以前的苏格兰议会被废除。从那时起，新的苏格兰议会并不是一个完全独立的机构。这是一个相对于威斯敏斯特议会，从苏格兰议会通过获得其权威苏格兰法律下的身体。苏格兰议会的任何法律被认为是次要的立法不是主要的立法。当然一个简单的西敏寺议会法案是所有则需取消苏格兰议会，更不用说由后者的立法。3.List苏格兰法的主要来源是什么？现代苏格兰法律的主要来源是成文法，欧盟法律和普通法。4。五议会法案名称。你可以自由的名称无论是苏格兰议会威斯敏斯特或任何五个行为1）销售货物行为1979年，2）就业权利法1996年3）儿童保护（苏格兰）法20034）发牌（苏格兰）法案19755）离婚（苏格兰）法1976。5，什么是法规？议会的行为往往被称为法律或成文法。西敏寺议会（英国国民议会），仅作出苏格兰直到苏格兰议会建立的法律，但是，在威斯敏斯特给了许多不同领域的政策苏格兰议会的权力，使成文法。6。（一）什么是四个最重要的欧洲联盟机构（二），其中以欧洲联盟的机构有制定法律的权力？（一）四，欧洲联盟的主要机构有：部长理事会，欧洲议会，欧洲法院的法官，欧洲委员会（b）发言正好与欧洲议会建议部长理事会，有权力，以弥补欧洲人民的法律。欧洲法院的强制执行欧盟法律。欧洲委员会是有效的联盟在这个意义上的公务员队伍，可提出法律（但它不能真正立法），它也能带来各种违反欧洲联盟条约到欧洲法院的关注。在这后者的作用，委员会往往被视为对各欧洲联盟条约守护者。7。 （一）什么是司法先例原则？（二）请给出一个司法先例。司法先例遵循先例学说涉及到这样一个进程，使法官或法官可以通过使发展中的一个测试案例的决定的法律规则。一个测试案例是非常情况下，其中一个重要的法律问题寻求澄清和法官在听取反对法律论点，将不得不以何种法律观点是正确的决定。一旦这一决定已经作出，未来的法官和法院将可望依循的情况下测试，如果他们与一个类似的案件处理的法律问题的理由。但是，应该强调的是，不是每个法官可以做出新的，具有约束力的法律规则。该法官或法院的权力都必须首先考虑的。这是非常不可能像谢里夫或太平绅士少年法官将能够创建一个新的法治规则。另一方面，如果上级法院来裁决结果，例如，高级法院或者上议院，这个决定必须由较低或下级法院遵循。因此，在法院的职位关系重大。司法先例或判例法是不成文的苏格兰法律的一部分。斯蒂文森的多诺霍v 1932众所周知的例子可以用来作为司法先例原则的好例子。 （见5.1.03临44）8。提供三种民事纠纷的例子。民事纠纷的例子可能包括下列行为：*家庭法律纠纷（保管或收养子女）。*离婚或分居的行动。*追债行动。*诽谤的性格。*期限或丢失文件的真实性。9。 （一）在苏格兰和欧盟之间的法律，这两个法律制度之一必然要遵循苏格兰法院冲突？（b）解释你的答案？既然如此，苏格兰法院必须服从欧盟的法律制度。欧洲联盟是20个会员国俱乐部。像大多数的组织或俱乐部，其成员，以享受会员的好处，必须遵守的规则或法律。英国自1973年1月1日作为欧洲共同体法1972年由议会通过威斯敏斯特导致欧盟的一个成员。这项立法承认欧洲法律高于国内法律的至高无上。英国的时候成为欧洲联盟成员国于1973年，欧盟的许多法律是在关键的地方已经和英国已经接受作为欧洲共同体（现欧洲联盟）会员价这些。因此，这将是把握地说，英国国家法律将不再占据统治地位，除非英国决定退出欧洲联盟的成员。10什么是犯罪？ （你应该列出四种犯罪行为的例子）一个犯罪行为，/这是如此责备并，因此/最后认为，威胁或破坏了社会的安全。犯罪行为应该受到惩罚的国家-如由一所监狱判处死刑手段和/或罚款或其他的谁是犯罪的定罪人的制裁。谋杀，强奸，袭击，火灾的提高，盗窃和欺诈行为都是犯罪11。（一）什么是四个最重要的欧洲联盟机构（二），其中以欧洲联盟的机构有制定法律的权力？（一）四，欧洲联盟的主要机构有：部长理事会，欧洲议会，欧洲法院的法官，欧洲委员会。（b）发言正好与欧洲议会建议部长理事会，有权力，以弥补欧洲人民的法律。欧洲法院的强制执行欧盟法律。欧洲委员会是有效的联盟在这个意义上的公务员队伍，可提出法律（但它不能真正立法），它也能带来各种违反欧洲联盟条约到欧洲法院的关注。在这后者的作用，委员会往往被视为对各欧洲联盟条约守护者。12（一）什么是四个最重要的欧洲联盟机构（二），其中以欧洲联盟的机构有制定法律的权力？（一）四，欧洲联盟的主要机构有：部长理事会，欧洲议会，欧洲法院的法官，欧洲委员会。（b）发言正好与欧洲议会建议部长理事会，有权力，以弥补欧洲人民的法律。欧洲法院的强制执行欧盟法律。欧洲委员会是有效的联盟在这个意义上的公务员队伍，可提出法律（但它不能真正立法），它也能带来各种违反欧洲联盟条约到欧洲法院的关注。在这后者的作用，委员会往往被视为对各欧洲联盟条约守护者。大卫和尼尔了他们一贯的星期五举行会议。本周，讨论的主要领域是企业的需要重新结构。这个问题时，优先增加了尼尔约翰解释说，科尔伯特土木工程承包商曾向有关他合并。约翰科尔伯特高级即将退休，该公司认为，继续成功和增长的最佳途径是通过创建一个企业，将配合充分的设计和土木及结构工程项目的发展。这背后的一个主要原因是，越来越多的客户希望节约成本可能是源于协同作用，会导致一个组织处理设计和开发。虽然两家公司已经以高品质工作的声誉，日益激烈的竞争和效率的需要，使节余使越来越更重要的是，两家企业寻找新的可能性和管理发展。在过去的四年里，两家公司一起工作过的数他们的项目和即将开始的两个主要发展工作：新的休闲复杂，为苏格兰长官，后者是唯一办公大楼担保作为紧密的合作，两家公司安排的结果。约翰和尼尔是也知道，这个项目的顺利完成将导致更多的苏格兰行政projects.Currently约翰，特许土木工程师，就业两个参赛队。每队由一领队，挖掘机司机及三名合格的建设者。当工作大发展的两支球队将在现场一起工作，但会为不同的责任网站方面的发展。例如，在发展道路，一个团队会专注于生产，而另一路队集中在桥梁或者通路，根据设计规范。尼尔同意约翰认为，从商业角度看，两家公司的合并可以在许多方面受益：此次合并将主要是有益的，因为工程师们将有正式权力管理施工人员。目前，作为设计师，有一非正式验收，设计工程师是在给定的项目在现场负责。一合并将有助于阐明这种关系。约翰的公司是根据列的镇，除了为他的设备空间，他哈达大的办公室，将应付来自巴伯布朗更多的工作人员。在过去，工程顾问们总是选择在镇中心的情况。这是主要是让客户方便地访问的工程师。由于新技术和结果计算机网络，设计沟通往往是通过电话和电子邮件进行。这是非常少见的客户参观了办事处。如果会议是必要的，这些往往要么采取现场或在客户端的主办公场所。该建筑物设办事处的巴伯布朗是在一个主要城市的位置，可以重建。意识到这一潜力，尼尔渴望给合并其全考虑。除了重新定位，约翰也有一小，但效率高，管理团队处理接待，秘书服务，帐户和工资。再次，储蓄可以作出通过降低管理成本，目前有两个政府所招致的部分。尼尔知道，合并，如果它继续，会造成一些redundancies.Although并不总是热衷于作出重大修改，大卫也同意，因为他们的企业需要重新结构，合并将提供理想的原因使当前的工作方法，并建议把先行的变化。朗读D wi h n r le tmen ygun de xngq w j hng huy. Bn zhu, toln de zhyo lngySh qy de xyo chngxn jigu. Zhge wnt sh, yuxin zngji le n rYuhn jish shu, k r b t tm gngchng chngbo shng cng xing yugun tHbng. Yuhn k r b t goj jjing tuxi, gi gngs rnwi, jxChnggng h zngzhng de zu ji tjng sh tnggu chungjin yg qy, jing pihChngfn de shj h tm j jigu gngchng xingm d fzhn.Zh bihu de yg zhyo yunyn sh, yu li yu du de kh xwng jiyu chngbnKnng sh yun y xitng zuyng, hu dozh yg zzh chlShj h kif. Surn ling ji gngs yjng y go pnzh gngzu de shngy,Ry jli de jngzhng h xiol de xyo, sh jiy sh yu li yuGng zhngyo de sh, ling ji q y xnzho xn de knng xng h gunlFzhn. Zi guq de s nin l, ling ji gngs yq gngzu gu de shTmen de xingm h jjing kish de ling g zhyo fzhn gngzu: Xn de xixinFz, wi sgln zhnggun, hu zh sh wi y bngng dluDnbo zuwi jnm de hzu, ling ji gngs npi de jigu. Yuhn h n r shY zhdo, zhge xingm d shnl wnchng jing dozh gng du de sglnXngzhng projects.Currently yuhn, tx tm gngchngsh, jiy ling g cnsi du. Mi du yu yLngdu, wju j sj j sn mng hg de ji