发展段落的十大方法.doc

发展段落的十大方法英语四种主要文体I Narration记叙文：A narrative is an account of an event or a series of events. Narrative writing includes stories, biographies, histories, and news items.记叙文用来叙述一件事情或一系列事件。包括故事、传记、史记和新闻报道。II Description描写文: Description is a strategy for presenting a picture in words of a person, a place, an object, or a scene, etc. Two types of description: Practical or utilitarian description, Impressionistic description. Descriptive writing includes a polices description of a wanted man, a house, the details of interesting buildings mentioned in a town guidebook.描写文用来描写人、环境、事物或景物。IIIExposition说明文：Exposition means explaining and making clear. An expository paper explains something, such as how something is made, why something has happened, in what ways two persons or things are similar or different and so on. Expository papers are perhaps the type of wring that is most frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Expository papers include and introduction to place, an advertisement about the qualities of some new product, directions, or a notice. In fact, exposition is mostly utilitarian description. Things can be explained in many ways, for instance, by process, illustration, classification, and/or division, comparison and/or contrast, or an analysis of their causes and/or effects. 说明文就是解释说明清楚。常用来说明事实、情况和传达信息。IVArgumentation议论文：To argue means to provide reason for or against something, especially clearly and in proper order. There are two main ways of argument: inductive and deductive. In inductive argument, you use known facts to produce general ideas. In deductive argument, you infer one statement from another, beginning with a general idea and arriving at a particular one. 议论文的主要目的是陈述理由，说服他人接受你的观点，使人相信某种道理或某种假设。有两种推论方法：归纳法和演绎法。(一) 写段落的步骤1 选题题目不能太大，如果太大，我们不可能在一段里把它讲清楚。如“宇宙”。也不能太小或太窄，如“什么时候起床”，用不着一段来写，只需一句话就清楚了。题目也不能太难，太专业化。2 选材可以从亲身经历中或观察中选材料，也可以从日记、笔记中选材料。我们还可从书、报、杂志、磁带等上选材料，但要注意不能剽窃。3 列提纲4 写初稿5 修改（二）发展段落的十大方法1按时间先后顺序发展段落写传记、讲故事、写游记、讲真事时，往往先讲先发生的事，后讲后发生的事。用这一方法安排的段落就是按时间先后顺序发展段落。按时间先后顺序发展的段落可以有主题句，也可没有主题句；可以有结尾句，也可没有结尾句。下面就是一个既无主题句也无结尾句的传记性的段落。 Jack London, one of the greatest of American critical realists, was born in San Francisco, California on Jan. 12, 1876. He spent his childhood on California ranches and the streets of Oakland. After he finished grammar school, he was put into a cannery, where he often had to work long hours. Later he became an oyster pirate, a sailor, a worker in a jute mill, a stoker at a power plant and for a period of time, a tramp. In 1896, after some preparatory study, he entered the University of California on money borrowed from his sister, but was soon driven by poverty to give up his studies. In the same year, he joined the Socialist Labour Party, the activities of which were limited to theoretical discussions and propaganda work. In 1897, when gold was discovered in the Klondike, 21-year-old London went there to work as a gold miner. Having spent a freezing, fruitless winter in the Far North, he returned to Oaklangd to write. In 1900 his collection of short stories The son of the wolf was published by Houghton Mifflin. Then, in 1903, came his best-selling novel The Call of the Wild and the beginning of the years that were to bring him wealth and world wide popularity. The sea Wolf was published in 1904 and that same year he went as a war correspondent to Japan. Later under the influence of the 1905 Revolution in Russia, London came into closer contact with the working class movement and began to take an active part in socialist activities. During this period he reached the height of his creative activities, producing such works as The People of the Abyss, The war of the Classes, The Revolution, The Iron Heel, and Martin Eden. After 1910, London gradually left the working class movement. He also went to Mexico in 1914, cruised the Caribbean and sailed his own ketch to the Solomons before his death in 1916.这段提纲挈领地叙述了London从1876年出生到1916年去世整整40年的生平事迹。段落是按时间先后顺序写的。2. 按空间顺序发展段落3用讲述过程或步骤的方法发展段落Preparing for Final ExaminationsThe process of preparing for end of year examinations involves both long-rang and short-range planning (Topic Sentence). Basic long-range considerations are regular class attendance and insistence, week-by-week completion of all reading assignments. Of course, systematic notes of major points raised in the class discussions or in the assigned readings provide a condensed record of the essential facts and concepts. To keep outlines and notes up to date, they should be reviewed and revised from time to time throughout the college year. Short-range planning should include collecting copies of previous examinations or suggested study questions at least three weeks prior to the exam date. These can be used as guides in an intensive review of the ideas that teachers have considered important. Self-confidence in analytical and compositional skill can be increased by actually writing out and checking practice answers to typical examination questions. Finally, in addition to preparing the mind, care should be taken to ensure that the body is well-rested and nerves calm at the actual time of examination. From the foregoing, it should be clear that effective preparation for final examination is really a year-long process requiring the continuous use of appropriate study techniques (concluding Sentence).4. 用举例说明的方法发展段落5用分类的方法发展段落用分类的方法发展段落就是要根据某种（些）原则把人物、看法、事情、地方等分成若干类（种、组）。在一段里，可以根据一个原则把人、物、看法、事情、或地方分成若干类。譬如，可以根据性别把人分为男人和女人。在这样的段落里，每一类就是一个直接支撑句。在每一个直接支撑句后，可以有一个或多个间接支撑句来说明那一类别。在一段里，我们可以根据多个标准把人、物、看法、事情、或地方分成若干类。譬如，根据性性别，人可以分成男人和女人；根据年龄，人可以分为婴儿、小孩、青年人、中年人、老年人；根据职业，人可以分为工人、农民、工程师、教员、医生、护士、军人、学生等；根据肤色，人可以分为黑种人、红种人、白种人、黄种人等。在这样的段落里，每一种分法就是一个直接支撑局。在一个直接支撑句后，可以有一个或多个间接支撑句来说明那种分法。不管怎样分类，有一点要记住：用同一中方法分出来的各类之间不应发生重叠。进行分类的段落的结构通常是：主题句支撑句结尾句。可用这样的句子来作主题句：can be classified in different ways; may be sorted intocategories according to; might group into; may classify. on the basis of ; usually fall intogroups; can e brought under three chief categories; may be classed in five groups等。支撑句应象上一段讲的那样，根据不同分法而有变化。结尾句同其他段落结尾句相似，用来进行总结、评论、重复主题等。现在，请看下面这一示范段落。 The Classification of ParagraphsIndividual paragraphs-the building blocks of essays, articles, chapters, and other longer papers-may be classified in a variety of ways. At the essay level, paragraph may be sorted into functional groups such as introductory, developmental, transitional, summarizing, and the like. Depending upon the purpose or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought of as aiming to persuade, inform, argue or excite. Paragraphs may also be classified according to such techniques of development as comparison, contrast, and definition. Such classifications make it possible to talk about a large number of paragraphs by grouping them into a small number of classes.为了使分类段落更好地关联，我们可以用First, second, third, also, besides, last, finally, The first type is, The second type is 等关联词语。此外，重复关键的词语也可使段落有连贯性。6用比较/对照的方法发展段落我们用比教/对照的方法发展段落以便弄清两个人、两个东西、两种方法、两个地方等有哪些相似之处或不同之处。用比较/对照的方法发展的段落模式为：主题句支撑句结尾句。如果我们用比较的方法（by comparison）发展段落，就应在那一段里显示两人、两物、两地等在哪些方面相似。这种段落的开头常用“Although Chongqing and Wuhan are in two different provinces, they are similar in many ways. ”或“In spite of their difference in length, an essay and a paragraph are quite alike structurally.”和“Most people believe that A and B have three things in common.”这样的句子作为主题句。为了把相似之处讲清楚，需要恰当的2安排支撑局。在这方面，有几个常用的模式可供我们选用。一是“A1，A2，A3 +tr(transitiona)+B1，B2，B3”模式。我们一重庆和武汉的相似此处为例，解释这一模式。假定重庆为A，武汉为B。在段落的第一个支撑句里，写重庆的地理位置。在第二个支撑句里，写重庆的天气。在第三个支撑句里写重庆的工业。总之，前面几个支撑句都是关于重庆的。然而，写一个过渡句，表示我们要从“重庆”到“武汉”了，或在有关武汉的第一支撑句前用一个“Similarly”, “Equally”, “Likewise”这样的关联词语。然后，响应地写几个关于武汉的地理位置、天气、工业的支撑句。这就是“A1，A2，A3 +tr(transitiona)+B1，B2，B3”模式。另一模式是“A1, A2, A3, +tr+B3, B2, B1, ”还有一个模式上“A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；”此外，还常见“AB1（A，B同时出现在一句里），AB2，AB3”这一模式。在表明相似之处的段落里，常用如下关联词语：first, second, another, still another, equally, likewise, similarly, besides, furthermore, too, also, moreover, in addition, like, just as等。下面是一个讲栽培植物与培育孩子相似之处的段落。Raising houseplants involves nearly as much care and knowledge as raising children. IN raising children, parents must love and nurse their children so that their children can be happy and healthy. They must also know their childrens needs so as to provide what is necessary for the best physical and mental development . Finally they must spend time playing with them, talking to them and caring for them. Likewise, an environment of tender, loving care is necessary for houseplants to grow fast. Proper care of houseplants requires a basic knowledge of plants on the part of the owner. And the owner of house plants must be willing to spend time providing the best possible care for his plants. Obviously, happy, healthy plants and children are the result of extra time, energy and knowledge. (“A1，A2，A3 +tr(transitiona)+B1，B2，B3”模式) 下面是一个讲客观考试与书面主观考试的差别的段落。In colleges and universities, the objective test and the essay exam are two different methods commonly used to evaluate a students grasp of subject matter（主题句）. The objective test usually consists of a large number of unrelated questions that require the student to show mastery of details. The essay exam, on the other hand, usually has a few broadly stated questions that require the student to organize his answers in essay form. The unrelated questions in the objective test drive the student to learn by rote isolated facts during the pretest period of study. Unlike the unrelated questions, the broadly stated questions force the student to prove his ability to handle general concepts. Besides, the true-false or multiple choice form of the questions in the objective test encourages the student to guess answers for which he has no accurate knowledge. In contrast, mere guessing at answers is reduced to a minimum by great necessity for the student to demonstrate analytical and synthetic skills in the essay exam. Clearly, the techniques (and very often the results) of the objective test and the essay exam differ significantly though the exams have similar goals- the assessment of a students academic achievement.（结尾句用不同的话重复主题句中的主题，同时起评论作用。） （“A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；”） 用比较和对照的方法发展段落应显示两人、两的、两物等的相似之处和不同之处。段落开头常用“A”和“A”这样的话作主题句。要把这种段落中的支撑句做恰当的安排就比其那两种要难一些。现在我们用S1代表第一个相同点，S2代表第二个相同点，S3代表第三个相同点，tr代表过渡句或关联词语，DS1代表第一个不同点，DS2代表第二个不同点，DS3代表第三个不同点。那么，我们可以用下列模式中的任何一个来安排段落中的支撑句：“S1，S2，S3 +tr+D1，D2，D3 ”； “S1，DS1；S2，DS2；S3，DS3; ”； “S1DS1，S2DS2，S3DS3”。此外，还应根据实际需要，选用前面介绍过的两种关联词语。下面是一概述美国南北战争中两位著名将军的相同点与不同点的段落。There were similarities and dissimilarities between Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee. To begin with, both Grant and Lee had the great virtue of utter tenacity and fidelity. Besides, both had daring, resourcefulness and the ability to think faster and move faster than the enemy. Lastly, and perhaps greatest of all, they both had the ability to turn quickly from war to peace once the fighting was over. However, these two strong men were oddly different generals.(过渡句或关联句) Grant was the son of a tanner on the Western frontier while Lee was from an aristocratic family. The former saw his fate in terms of the nations own destiny whereas the latter saw himself in relation to his own region. Besides, Grant represented the commercial and social expansionsm of the future but Lee represented an old order founded on the inherited ownership of land. Clearly, they were two similar yet different great Americans.（结尾句用不同的话重复第一句中的主题，并对两人做了评论。） 7.用分析原因/结果的方法发展段落我们用这一方法为的是在一段中纷纷系某行为、事件、情况或现象的原因、结果，阐明因果关系。分析因果关系这一方法相当灵活，因为因果关系并不总是象“因”“果”这两个字那样清楚。有各种各样的原因：直接原因、间接原因；主要的原因、次要的原因；历史的原因、现实的原因、政治的原因、经济原因；生态原因；心理原因等。此外，几个原因可能形成一个重要的原因。另外，有时结果可以变成原因，原因可以变成结果。例如：人口过剩是高出生率的结果，它又是饥荒的原因。一场火灾可能是煤气漏了的房子里一根燃烧着的火柴引起的，漏气可能来自一根有缺陷的煤气管，而这煤气管又是几年前错误地安装的。这样，因和果就形成了连锁反应或一连串的事件。有时一个结果只有一个原因，有时一个结果有多个原因，有时一个原因产生一个结果，有时一个原因带来多个结果。因此，要掌握这一发展段落的技巧，我们必须善于分析，善于推理，善于使用准确、完整、客观和相关的事实。因果段落的基本形式有四种。一是以陈述结果开始，热闹后分析导致这一结果的原因，最后写一结尾句。二是以成熟原因开始，染货讲述这原因导致什么结果，最货写一结尾句。三是先分析原因，后分析结果；或先分析结果，后分析原因。譬如，有关流行性感冒的起因和危害的段落，就可使用这一形式。四是使因、果交替地出现在段落里。四种形式中前两种较为常见。下面请看一分析美国公路车祸的原因的段落。Slaughter on the HighwaysDuring the past five years, the number of Americans killed annually in car accidents has climbed to more than 55,000. This needless slaughter on streets and highways can be attributed to three general causes. Mechanical failures, especially those related to faulty brakes and bald tyres, account for a significant number of fatal accidents. Environmental conditions such as blind corners, narrow streets, heavy fog, intermittent rain or snow resulting in slippery roads also contribute to the grisly accident statistics. But without doubt the most frequently reported factors in car accidents are errors of human judgement-all the way from such follies as excessive speed and drunken driving to such momentary lapses as failure to signal a turn or a change from one lane to another. The man behind the wheel is often his own worst enemy. 本段第一句陈述了结果或事实，第二句是主题句，表明了本段要分析造成这么这么多热闹死亡的原因。3-5句是支撑句，谈了三个原因；机械故障、环境条件差、人的失误。最后一句是结尾句，它戏剧性地重复了最后一个原因，使读者思考最后一句话的含义。另外，请看下面这一分析结果的示范段落。If the 50,000 control devices in the oil refineries of the US should go “on strike”, we would be faced with social disaster. The refineries would become lifeless industrial monuments. If we undertook to replace them with old-fashioned, manually operated refineries to supply our present motor-fuel needs, we would have to build four or five times as much plant, cracking and some other modern chemical processes would have to be eliminated. Yields of motor fuel from crude petroleum would drop to quarter of those at present; costs would skyrocket, and quality would plummet. Automobile engines would have to be radically redesigned to function with inferior fuel. And because of lower fuel yields, we would need to produce crude petroleum several times as rapidly as we produce it now. Technology in refining would be set back to the early 1920s. 本段的第一句是主题句，摆出了因果关系，原因是美国的煤油厂的五万个控制设施“罢工”，总的结果是社会大灾难。以下各句是具体的后果。注意本段用的虚拟语气，并非真有其事。在分析因果关系的段落中，可以使用下列关联词语：because, as, since, for, so, hence, consequently, therefore, thus, accordingly, as a result, first of all, first, second, another cause, because of等。8用下定义的方法发展段落用下定义的方法发展段落可解释一个单词、短语或概念，或介绍某个单位、组织、东西等。下定义的段落通常以一主题句开头，这一主题句给那个单词、短语、概念、单位、组织、东西等下一个简单的定义。然后在支撑局中做进一步的解释或介绍。支撑句的内容可以包括事例、细节、起源，外貌描写各部分名称，同别的东西的相同点或不同点运转方式、制作过程、起因、影响、意义、发明者等。总之，支撑句应从多个方面或角度提供有关的信息，帮助解释。定义的段落常有结尾句总结整个段落，用不同的话重复主题，对前面说的进行评议，预测未来等。下定义的段落与其它种类的段落的区别在于，它有一简单的定义在段落开头作主题句。下面是一介绍计算机的段落。 A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory unit. It consists of input units, a processor unit, output units and auxiliary storage units. It has been in use only since 1946. It can do simple computations-add, subtract, multiply, and divide-with lightning speed and perfect accuracy. It can gather a wide range of information for many purposes. It can also store the pieces of information as fast as they are gathered and pour them out whenever they are needed. Besides the computer can solve complicated problems that once took months for people to do. Almost like a human being, it can “read” hand-printed letters, play chess, compose music, write plays, and even design other computers. Its benefits are so obvious that it is widely used and performs wonders in many fields, such as business, education, industry, medicine, aviation and space travel. No wonder some people call it the ultimate machine. 本段的第一句是主题句，给计算机下了一个简短的定义。24句是支撑句，介绍了计算机的构造、起源、功能、用处等，对计算机做了进一步的解释。最后一句是结尾句，对计算机发表评论。由于下定义的段落的支撑局的内容不限于某一个方面，因此这种段落没有固定的关联词语。我们只能根据不同的内容选用不同的关联词语。9用细节发展段落用细节发展段落可能是用得最多的一种方法。它可以用来做自我介绍，介绍他人，介绍家庭，介绍单位，介绍地理情况，介绍某人优缺点，介绍某单位先进事迹，介绍会议情况，介绍书的内容，介绍某一历史事件，报道灾情，报道比赛，讲注意事项，他打球规则，等等。这一方法要求我们通过介绍各组成部分来说明整体，用事实或细节来说明一主题句总说，从多方面或多角度来说明一个问题。这一方法同前面讲的“下定义”，“举例说明”两种方法容易发生混淆。区别在于：下定义的段落的主题句必须是一简短的定义，而且这一方法发展的段落不以定义开头。这一方法同举例说明法的区别是：细节是整体或总说的组成部分，细节本身重要；例子不是要说明的抽象概念饿组成部分，例子本身并不重要，可以多一个也可以少一个。此外，例子是类东西的代表，我们可以在前面用 这样的词语。用细节发展的段落的结构可以同其他段落一样：主题句支撑句结尾句，也可以没有主题句和结尾句。下面是一用细节发展而且有主题句、支撑句、关联句和结尾句的示范段。 During the decade of the 1960s, most of the European colonies of Sub-Saharan Africa achieved independence. In the west, Nigeria (1960), Sierra Leone (1961), and Gambia (1965)-all former British colonies-joined the family of free and independent nations. In the east, Tanzania (1961), Uganda ()1962), Kenya (1963), and Zambia (1964), also became sovereign states free of British rule. As the African empire of Great Britain was being dismantled, France, the other major European colonizer, withdrew from vast areas south of the Sahara. Thirteen former French colonies gained national status in the single year 1960: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Togo, Dahomey, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Gabon, and Congo. Although a few European colonialists still occupy African territory, the 1960s witnessed the birth of more than twenty free black nations. 第一句是主题句，告诉本段将介绍60年代非洲国家独立情况。二、三句支撑句，介绍从英国统治下获得独立的非洲国家。第四句是关联句。第五句是支撑句，介绍法国统治下获得独立的非洲国家。第六句是结尾句，总结这一段。在用细节发展的段落中，常见以下关联词语：and, again, also, besides, first, second, finally, first of all, one, another, still another 等。10用归纳发发展段落前面介绍的九种方法有一共同点：主题句后跟上几个支撑句。它们都是由总说到分说或由一般到具体（from general to specific），渐渐远离主题句。这样的段落也叫分析性段落。但是，用归纳法发展段落却不同。它要求先出现支撑句事实、细节、例子、相同点、不同点、原因、结果、类别、步骤等，然后出现结尾句兼主题句结论。换句话说，归纳的段落是有分说到总说或由具体到一般（from specific to general），渐渐接近主题，这样的段落也叫综合性段落。用归纳法发展的段落，不象告诉读者“这是真的，因为这个、这个、这个、这个”，而更象说“如果这是真的，这是真的，这是真的，那么我们可以做出如下结论。”下面请看示范段落 In preparing scientific reports of laboratory experiments, a student must present his findings in logical order and clear language if he wants to receive a favourable evaluation of his work. Similarly, in order to write successful answer to essay questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and