心理学专业英语基础 34章.ppt

chapter3,cognitivepsychology,cognitivepsychology,perception知觉attention注意memory记忆,perception,visualperceptualorganisation视知觉组织性top-downtheoriesofperception自上而下加工的知觉理论bottom-uptheoriesofperception自下而上加工的知觉理论thedevelopmentofperception知觉的发展,visualperceptualorganisation,perceptionistheprocessofinterpretingandorganisingtheenvironmentalinformationreceivedbythesenses.,知觉是对感官接受的环境信息进行解释和组织的过程。,visualperception,visualperceptualorganisation,forvisualperception,thisinvolvestakingtheconstantlyfluctuatingpatternsoflightwhicharrivefromallovertheenvironment,upside-down,ontoourtwo-dimensionalretinasand,fluctuate波动,变动;动摇,视觉认知，指接受来自周围环境的持续变化的光线模式，自上而下地投射到我们的二维视网膜，以及,visualperceptualorganisation,detectingtheshapeofobjectsintheenvironment;establishinglocationinthree-dimensionalspace;recognisinganobjectintermsofitsshape,size,brightnessandcolour.,intermsof根据,觉察环境中物体的形状；在三维空间中建构物体的位置；根据这个物体的形状、大小、亮度和颜色来识别它。,visualperceptualorganisation,brightnesscontrast,perception,selectiveattentionfocusofconsciousawarenessonaparticularstimulus.,changeblindness,perceptualorganization:gestalt,visualcapturetendencyforvisiontodominatetheothersenses.gestalt-anorganizedwholetendencytointegratepiecesofinformationintomeaningfulwholes.,视觉捕捉视觉主宰其他感官的倾向。格式塔一个有组织地把分散信息整合成有意义的整体的倾向。,perceptualorganization:gestalt,grouping:theperceptualtendencytoorganizestimuliintocoherentgroupsgroupingprinciplesproximity-groupnearbyfigurestogethersimilarity-groupfiguresthataresimilarcontinuity-perceivecontinuouspatternsclosure-fillingapsconnectedness-spots,lines,andareasareseenasunitwhenconnected,组合：将一些刺激组合成连贯的整体的知觉倾向组合的原则临近性相似性连续性闭合性连接性,perceptualorganization:gestalt,illusorycontours虚假轮廓,perceptualorganization:gestalt,groupingprinciples,perceptualorganization:gestalt,closure,perceptualorganization:gestalt,howaregestaltgroupingprinciplesatworkhere?,perceptualorganization:gestalt,impossibledoghouse,top-downtheoriesofperception,sometimesreferredtoasconstructivisttheories,thesetheoriesstressthefactorsintheconstructionofrealitythatgobeyondtheinformationreceivedfromthesenses.gregorystheoryandperceptualsettheoryregardperceptionasaveryactiveprocess,wherebytheindividualspastknowledge,expectationsandstereotypesseekoutsensorydatatocompletethepicture.,有时指建构理论。这些理论认为对事实的建构过程中的因素对知觉的影响大于感官接收的信息。gregory的理论和知觉定势理论把视觉当做一个非常活跃的加工过程，因为过去的知识、期待、以及刻板印象都会影响感觉信息。,top-downtheoriesofperception,perceptualconstancyperceivingobjectsasunchangingevenasilluminationandretinalimagechangecolorshapesize,知觉恒常性在映像和网膜成像变化的情况下，仍然把物体知觉为不变。颜色一致性形状一致性大小一致性,perceptualconstancy,perceptualconstancy,top-downtheoriesofperception,illusions错觉,perceptualillusions,perceptualillusions,mller-lyerillusion,perceptualillusions,visualperceptualorganisation,size-distancerelationship,perceptualillusions,perceptualillusions,perceptualillusions,perceptualillusions,illusorydepth,top-downtheoriesofperception,perceptualset:schemas知觉定势：轮廓,whatyouseeinthecenterisinfluencedbyperceptualset.,bottom-uptheoriesofpercption,thesetheoriesemphasisetherichnessoftheinformationenteringtheeyeandthewaythatperceptioncanoccurfromusingalltheinformationavailable.gibsonbelievesperceptionoccursdirectlyfromsensation,featuredetectiontheoriesexaminetheprocessesinvolvedinassemblingperceptionfromsensations.,这些理论强调进入眼睛的信息丰富性，以及知觉可以通过使用所有可用的信息来发生的方式。吉布森认为视觉直接来自感觉，特征觉察理论检验了包含在通过由感觉汇集成为知觉过程中的加工。,perception,thedevelopmentofperception,illusorydepthexplanation,thedevelopmentofperception,depthperception:abilitytoseeobjectsinthreedimensions;allowsustojudgedistance.binocularcues:retinaldisparity:imagesfromthetwoeyesdiffer;closertheobject,thelargerthedisparityconvergence:neuromuscularcue;twoeyesmoveinwardfornearobjects,深度知觉：在三维空间内看到物体的能力。帮助我们判断距离。双眼线索，如：视网膜成像差异，即两个眼睛所获得的图像略有不同。距离越近，差异性越大。双眼辐合，神经肌线索，对于近的物体，两个眼睛向内运动。,thedevelopmentofperception,thedevelopmentofperception,monocularcuesrelativesize:smallerimageismoredistantinterposition:closerobjectblocksdistantobjectrelativeclarity:hazyobjectseenasmoredistanttexture:coarse-close;fine-distant,单眼线索相对大小：像越小，物体越远。重叠：近的物体阻挡远的物体（的像）。相对清晰度：越模糊，物体越远。质地（密度、结构级差）：粗糙的近，细密的远。,thedevelopmentofperception,relativesize,thedevelopmentofperception,interposition,thedevelopmentofperception,monocularcuesrelativemotion:closerobjectsseemtomovefasterlinearperspective:parallellinesconvergewithdistancerelativebrightness:closerobjectsappearbrighter,单眼线索相对运动：近的物体运动快。线性透视：平行线在远处汇合。相对亮度：较近的物体较亮。,thedevelopmentofperception,perspectivetechniques,thedevelopmentofperception,lightandshadow,thedevelopmentofperception,visualcliff,thedevelopmentofperception,sensoryrestriction:blakemore&cooper,1970kittensraisedwithoutexposuretohorizontallineslaterhaddifficultyperceivinghorizontalbars.,perception,definition:thefocusingandconcentrationofmentaleffortthatusuallyresultsinconsciousawarenessofcertainaspectsofexternalsensorystimuliormentalexperiences(althoughmoststudyhasfocusedontheformer).定义：心理努力的聚集和集中状态，会引起意识对外界感觉刺激或内部心理经验的觉察（虽然大部分研究关注的是前者）。,attention,thevastamountofsensoryinformationfromalloursenseshastobecutdowntomanageableproportionswhilereadingthisyouareprobablynotawareofthesmellsaroundyouorthepressureonwhateverpartofyourbodyyouarerestingon.由感官获得的大部分感觉信息被划分成可管理的很多部分。当你读这段文字的时候，你可能不会注意到周围的味道，或者是你身体倚靠的部位受到的压力。,attention,somestudieshavelookedatfocusedorselectiveattentionhowcertainstimuliareselectedoverothersthroughallocatingattention.一些研究关注的是注意的集中性或者选择性即通过注意分配，某些特定的刺激时如何被选择成为注意对象的。,attention,otherstudieshavelookedatdividedattentionhow,withinalimitedcapacity,attentioncanbeallocatedtomorethanonetaskatatime.其他研究关注的是注意的分散性即在注意资源有限的前提下，注意是如何在同一时间被分配到不同任务上的。,attention,researchhasshownthatiftasksarepractisedenough,theybecomeautomatic,needlessattention,andcanbesuccessfullyperformedwithothertasks.研究显示，如果任务得到充分练习，就会成为自动加工，需要较少注意资源，并且可以和其他的任务一起成功完成。,attention,memory记忆persistenceoflearningovertimeviathestorageandretrievalofinformation通过储存、提取，对信息进行学习和保存flashbulbmemory闪回记忆aclearmemoryofanemotionallysignificantmomentorevent对于有显著情绪性的时刻或事件的清晰记忆,memory,memoryasinformationprocessingsimilartoacomputerwritetofile,savetodisk,readfromdisk类似于电脑写文件，储存，读取,memory,encodingtheprocessingofinformationintothememorysystem.i.e.,extractingmeaning编码：使信息进入记忆系统的加工过程，如提取意义,memory,storagetheretentionofencodedinformationovertime储存：已经编码的信息的长期保持,memory,retrievalprocessofgettinginformationoutofmemory提取：从记忆中获取信息的加工过程,memory,sensorymemorytheimmediate,initialrecordingofsensoryinformationinthememorysystem感觉记忆，在记忆系统中对感觉信息的即时的、初级的记录workingmemoryfocusesmoreontheprocessingofbrieflystoredinformation工作记忆，短暂存储的信息加工,memory,short-termmemoryactivatedmemorythatholdsafewitemsbriefly短时记忆：激活的记忆中短暂维持的几个项目lookupaphonenumber,thenquicklydialbeforetheinformationisforgottenlong-termmemorytherelativelypermanentandlimitlessstorehouseofthememorysystem长时记忆：记忆系统中，保存相对持久且容量无限,memory,asimplifiedmemorymodel,encoding:gettinginformationin,automaticprocessingunconsciousencodingofincidentalinformation对偶然发生信息的无意识编码space,time,frequencywell-learnedinformation较好学习的信息wordmeaningswecanlearnautomaticprocessing自动加工可以学习readingbackwards,encoding,effortfulprocessingrequiresattentionandconsciouseffort需要注意和有意识地努力rehearsalconsciousrepetitionofinformation复述：有意识地重述信息tomaintainitinconsciousnesstoencodeitforstorage,encoding,ebbinghaususednonsensesyllables艾宾浩斯的无意义字母串学习tuvzofgekwavthemoretimespracticedonday1,thefewerrepetitionstorelearnonday2spacingeffectdistributedpracticeyieldsbetterlong-termretentionthanmassedpractice,encoding,encoding,semanticencoding语义编码encodingofmeaning,includingmeaningofwordsacousticencoding听觉编码encodingofsound,especiallysoundofwordsvisualencoding视觉编码encodingofpictureimages,whatdoweencode?,encoding,imagery表象mentalpictures,apowerfulaidtoeffortfulprocessing,especiallywhencombinedwithsemanticencodingmnemonics记忆术memoryaidsespeciallythosetechniquesthatusevividimageryandorganizationaldevices,encoding,chunking组块organizingitemsintofamiliar,manageableunitslikehorizontalorganization-1776149218121941oftenoccursautomaticallyuseofacronyms利用缩写arithmetic算术-aratintomshousemighteattomsicecream,encoding,organizedinformationismoreeasilyrecalled,encoding:chunking,hierarchies层级关系complexinformationbrokendownintobroadconceptsandfurthersubdividedintocategoriesandsubcategories.,encoding,encoding,imagery(visualencoding),meaning(semanticencoding),organization,chunks,hierarchies,iconicmemory图像记忆amomentarysensorymemoryofvisualstimuliaphotographicorpictureimagememorylastingnomorethatafewtenthsofasecondechoicmemory回声记忆momentarysensorymemoryofauditorystimuli,storage:retaininginformation,short-termmemorylimitedindurationandcapacity“magical”number7+/-2,storage:short-termmemory,storage:long-termmemory,howdoesstoragework?karllashley(1950)ratslearnmazelesioncortextestmemoryitwasasiteoflearningandmemorystorage(i.e.anengram印记，痕迹)inthebrain.,storage:long-termmemory,broca(1960s)theproductionoflanguagehasbeenlinkedtothebrocasareasincepierrepaulbrocareportedimpairmentsintwopatients.theyhadlosttheabilitytospeakafterinjurytotheposteriorinferiorfrontalgyrus（额叶回后部）ofthebrain.,synapticchanges突触变化long-termpotentiationincreaseinsynapsesfiringpotentialafterbrief,rapidstimulationstrongemotionsmakeforstrongermemoriessomestresshormonesboostlearningandretention,storage:long-termmemory,explicitmemory外显记忆memoryoffactsandexperiencesthatonecanconsciouslyknowanddeclare.alsocalleddeclarativememory.陈述性记忆hippocampus-neuralcenterinlimbicsystem（边缘系统）thathelpsprocessexplicitmemoriesforstorage.implicitmemory内隐记忆retentionindependentofconsciousrecollection.alsocalledproceduralmemory.程序性记忆,storage:long-termmemory,mriscanofhippocampus(inred)海马,storage:long-termmemory,recall回忆measureofmemoryinwhichthepersonmustretrieveinformationlearnedearlierasonafill-in-the-blanktestrecognition再认measureofmemoryinwhichthepersonhasonlytoidentifyitemspreviouslylearnedasonamultiple-choicetest,retrieval:gettinginformationout,relearning重学memorymeasurethatassessestheamountoftimesavedwhenlearningmaterialasecondtimepriming启动activation,oftenunconsciously,ofparticularassociationsinmemory,retrieval,dejavu(french)-alreadyseencuesfromthecurrentsituationmaysubconsciouslytriggerretrievalofanearliersimilarexperienceiveexperiencedthisbefore.“deja-vu现象，原文为法语djvu，中文翻译为“即视感”，简单而言就是“似曾相识”，未曾经历过的事情或场景仿佛在某时某地经历过的似曾相识之感。,retrievalcues,mood-congruentmemory心境一致性记忆tendencytorecallexperiencesthatareconsistentwithonescurrentmoodmemory,emotions,ormoodsserveasretrievalcuesstate-dependentmemorywhatislearnedinonestate(whileoneishigh,drunk,ordepressed)canmoreeasilyberememberedwheninsamestate,retrievalcues,retrievalcues,afterlearningtomoveamobilebykicking,infantshadtheirlearningreactivatedmoststronglywhenretestedinthesameratherthanadifferentcontext(butler&rovee-collier,1989).,forgettingcanoccuratanymemorystage.asweprocessinformation,wefilter,alter,orlosemuchofit.,forgetting,amnesia-thelossofmemory失忆症isaconditioninwhichonesmemoryislost.thecausesofamnesiahavetraditionallybeendividedintocategories.functionalcausesarepsychologicalfactors,suchasmentaldisorder,post-traumaticstressor,inpsychoanalyticterms,defensemechanisms.,forgetting,informationneverentersthelong-termmemory.,forgettingasencodingfailure,externalevents,sensorymemory,short-termmemory,long-termmemory,attention,encoding,encoding,encodingfailureleadstoforgetting,ebbinghausforgettingcurveover30days-initiallyrapid,thenlevelsoffwithtime.,forgettingasencodingfailure,theforgettingcurveforspanishlearnedinschool.,forgettingasencodingfailure,forgettingcanresultfromfailuretoretrieveinformationfromlong-termmemory.,forgettingasretrivalfailure,externalevents,attention,encoding,encoding,retrievalfailureleadstoforgetting,retrieval,learningsomeitemsmaydisruptretrievalofotherinformation.proactive(forwardacting)interference前摄抑制disruptiveeffectofpriorlearningonrecallofnewinformation.retroactive(backwardsacting)interference倒摄抑制disruptiveeffectofnewlearningonrecallofoldinformation.,interference,interference,retroactiveinterference,interference,motivatedforgetting动机性遗忘peopleunknowinglyrevisememoriesrepression压抑defensemechanismthatbanishesfromconsciousnessanxiety-arousingthoughts,feelings,andmemories,interference,wefilterinformationandfillinmissingpiecesmisinformationeffect错误信息效应incorporatingmisleadinginformationintoonesmemoryofanevent.sourceamnesia来源遗忘attributingtothewrongsourceaneventthatweexperienced,heardabout,readabout,orimagined.,memoryconstruction,eyewitnessesreconstructmemorieswhenquestioned,memoryconstruction,depictionofactualaccident,leadingquestion:“abouthowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheysmashedintoeachother?”,studyrepeatedlytoboostrecallspendmoretimerehearsingoractivelythinkingaboutthematerialmakematerialpersonallymeaningfulusemnemonicdevicesassociatewithpeg（标记性）words-somethingalreadystoredmakeupstorychunk-acronyms,improveyourmemory,activateretrievalcues-mentallyrecreatesituationandmoodrecalleventswhiletheyarefresh-beforeyouencountermisinformationminimizeinterferencetestyourownknowledgerehearsedeterminewhatyoudonotyetknow,improveyourmemory,chapter3,developmentalpsychology,developmentalpsychologyabranchofpsychologythatstudiesphysical,cognitiveandsocialchangethroughoutthelifespan.,prenataldevelopmentandthenewborn,40days45days2months4months,prenataldevelopmentandthenewborn,rootingreflex觅食反射tendencytoopenmouth,andsearchfornipplewhentouchedonthecheekpreferences偏好humanvoicesandfacesfacelikeimagessmellandsoundofmother,prenataldevelopmentandthenewborn,prenataldevelopmentandthenewborn,habituation习惯化decreasingresponsivenesswithrepeatedstimulation,prenataldevelopmentandthenewborn,havinghabituatedtotheoldstimulus,newbornspreferredgazingatanewone.,infancyandchildhood:physicaldevelopment,maturation成熟biologicalgrowthprocessesthatenableorderlychangesinbehavior.relativelyuninfluencedbyexperience.,infancyandchildhood:physicaldevelopment,babiesonly3monthsoldcanlearnthatkickingmovesamobile-andcanretainthatlearningforamonth(rovee-collier,1989,1997).,schema图式aconceptorframeworkthatorganizesandinterpretsinformation.assimilation同化interpretingonesnewexperienceintermsofonesexistingschemas.,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,accommodation顺应adaptingonescurrentunderstandings(schemas)toincorporatenewinformation.cognition认知allthementalactivitiesassociatedwiththinking,knowing,remembering,andcommunicating.,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,piagetsstagesofcognitivedevelopment,objectpermanencetheawarenessthatthingscontinuetoexistevenwhennotperceived.,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,babymathematicsshownanumericallyimpossibleoutcome,infantsstarelonger(wynn,1992),infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,conservationtheprinciplethatpropertiessuchasmass,volume,andnumberremainthesamedespitechangesintheformsofobjects.,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,egocentrismtheinabilityofthepreoperationalchildtotakeanotherspointofview.theoryofmindpeoplesideasabouttheirownandothersmentalstates-abouttheirfeelings,perceptions,andthoughtsandthebehaviorthesemightpredict.,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,objectpermanenceegocentrismconservationabstractlogic,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,autism自闭症adisorderthatappearsinchildhood.markedbydeficientcommunication,socialinteractionandunderstandingofothersstatesofmind.,infancyandchildhood:cognitivedevelopment,strangeranxietyfearofstrangersthatinfantscommonlydisplay.beginningbyabout8monthsofage.attachmentanemotionaltiewithanotherperson.showninyoungchildrenbytheirseekingclosenesstothecaregiveranddisplayingdistressonseparation.,socialdevelopment,socialdevelopment,harlowssurrogatemotherexperiments代理妈妈实验monkeyspreferredcontactwiththecomfortableclothmother,evenwhilefeedingfromthenourishingwiremother.,criticalperiodanoptimalperiodshortlyafterbirthwhenanorganismsexposuretocertainstimuliorexperiencesproducesproperdevelopment.,socialdevelopment,socialdevelopment,monkeysraisedbyartificialmotherswereterror-strickenwhenplacedinstrangesituationswithouttheirsurrogatemothers.,socialdevelopment,imprintingtheprocessbywhichcertainanimalsformattachmentsduringacriticalperiodveryearlyinlife.,socialdevelopment,groupsofinfantsleftbytheirmothersinaunfamiliarroom(fromkagan,1976).,basictrust(erikerikson)asensethattheworldispredictableandtrustworthysaidtobeformedduringinfancybyappropriateexperienceswithresponsivecaregiversself-conceptasenseofonesidentityandpersonalworth,socialdevelopment,authoritarianparentsimposerulesandexpectobedience“dontinterrupt.”“why?becauseisaidso.”permissivesubmittochildrensdesires,makefewdemands,uselittlepunishmentauthoritativebothdemandingandresponsivesetrules,butexplainreasonsandencourageopendiscussion,socialdevelopment:child-rearingpractices,socialdevelopment:child-rearingpractices,adolescencethetransitionperiodfromchildhoodtoadulthoodextendingfrompuberty（青春期）toindependencepubertytheperiodofsexualmaturationwhenapersonbecomescapableofreproduction,adolescence,adolescence,throughoutchildhood,boysandgirlsaresimilarinheight.atpuberty,girlssurgeaheadbriefly,butthenboysovertakethemataboutage14.,kohlbergsmoralladder,asmoraldevelopmentprogresses,thefocusofconcernmovesfromtheselftothewidersocialworld.,moralityofabstractprinciples:toaffirmagreed-uponrightsandpersonalethicalprinciples,moralityoflawandsocialrules:togainapprovaloravoiddisapproval,moralityofself-interest:toavoidpunishmentorgainconcreterewards,postconventionallevel,conventionallevel,preconventionallevel,eriksonsstagesofpsychosocialdevelopment,eriksonsstagesofpsychosocialdevelopment,identityonessenseofselftheadolescentstaskistosolidifyasenseofselfbytestingandintegratingvariousrolesintimacytheabilitytoformclose,lovingrelationshipsaprimarydevelopmentaltaskinlateadolescenceandearlyadulthood,adolescence:socialdevelopment,thechangingparent-childrelationship,adolescence:socialdevelopment,theagingsenses,adulthood:physicaldevelopment,10,30,50,70,90,0,0.25,0.50,0.75,1.00,ageinyears,theagingsenses,adulthood:physicaldevelopment,10,30