chapter1-TheFoundationsofChemistry基础化学ppt课件.ppt

1 Chapter1TheFoundationsofChemistry 2 ChapterOutline MatterandEnergy物質與能量Chemistry AMolecularViewofMatterStatesofMatterChemicalandPhysicalProperties化學與物理性質ChemicalandPhysicalChanges化學與物理變化Mixtures Substances Compounds andElementsMeasurementsinChemistryUnitsofMeasurementUseofNumbersTheUnitFactorMethod DimensionalAnalysis Percentage百分比DensityandSpecificGravity密度與比重HeatandTemperatureHeatTransferandtheMeasurementofHeat 3 ChemistryiseverywhereTent plasticSteelcookinggrate alloyofironandcarbonTrees Photochemicalreaction CO2 H2O carbohydrateOurbodies inorganicandbioorganiccompounds 4 Chemistry thesciencethatdescribesmatter properties thechangesitundergoes theenergychangesthataccompanythoseprocesses研究物質的特性 組成 結構和變化的科學OrganicChemistry有機化學InorganicChemistry無機化學AnalyticalChemistry分析化學 PhysicalChemistry物理化學Biochemistry生物化學 5 1 1MatterandEnergy MatterMassOccupiesspaceEnergy ThecapacitytodoworkortransferheatKineticenergy Potentialenergy動能位能Exothermic Endothermic放熱吸熱 6 Fig 1 1 p 4 TheLawofConservationofMatter物質不滅定律 Thereisnoobservablechangeinthequantityofmatterduringachemicalreactionorduringaphysicalchange 無論物質經過任何化學變化或物理變化 其反應物的總質量和產物的總質量相同 鎂燃燒生成氧化鎂 7 TheLawofConservationofMatter物質不滅定律ThelawofConservationofEnergy能量不滅定律Energycannotbecreatedordestroyedinachemicalreactionorinaphysicalchange ItcanonlybeconvertedfromoneformtoanotherTheLawofConservationofMatterandEnergy質能不滅定律ThecombinedamountofmatterandenergyintheuniverseisfixedEinstein sRelativityE mc2 8 Dalton sAtomicTheory道耳吞原子學說 in1808 Fig1 2Relativesizeforatomsofthenoblegases Fig 1 2 p 6 1 2Chemistry AmolecularViewofMatter 所有的物質都是由極小的微粒所組成 稱之為原子 atom 不同元素 element 的原子不同 但同一元素所含的原子均相同原子是組成物質的最小粒子 不能再分割化學反應是物質中原子的重新排列或組合不同元素的原子形成化合物 compound 時 原子間的比例為一固定的簡單整數比 9 Table1 1 p 6 電子 質子 中子 物質的基本粒子 Thebasicbuildingblocksofatoms 10 p 7 Atomicnumber原子序thenumberofprotonsinthenucleus Silver 11 Fig 1 3 p 7 Amolecule分子isthesmallestparticleofanelementorcompoundthatcanhaveastableindependentexistence Fig1 3Modelsofdiatomicmoleculesofsomeelements approximatelytoscale Therearecalledspace fillingmodels 比例模型 becausetheyshowtheatomswiththeirapproximaterelativesize Others N2 Cl2 Br2 I2 12 Fig 1 4 p 7 Fig1 4 a AmodeloftheP4moleculeofwhitephosphorus b AmodeloftheS8ringfoundinrhombicsulfur c TopviewoftheS8ringinrhombicsulfur polyatomicmolecules 13 Fig 1 5 p 8 Fig1 5Formulasandball and stickmodelsformoleculesofsomecompounds Ball and stick 球棍模型 modelsrepresenttheatomsasasmallerspheresthaninspace fillingmodels inordertoshowthechemicalbondsbetweentheatomsas stick 甲烷 乙醇 Compound化合物 14 Fig 1 6a p 8 NationalInstituteofScienceandTechnologylogoCobaltatomsonacoppersurface UsingtheScanningtunnelingMicroscope 34ironatomsarrangedonacoppersurface 15 Atom原子thesmallestparticleofanelementthatmaintainsitschemicalidentitythroughallchemicalandphysicalchange Molecule分子thesmallestparticlesofanelementorcompoundthatcanhaveastableindependentexistence Element元素asubstancethatcannotbedecomposedintosimplersubstancebychemicalmeans Compound化合物composedtwoormoredifferentelementsinfixedproportionscanbedecomposedintotheirconstituentelements 16 p 8 i Krypton氪 Example1 1Models ii ethane乙烷 iii Nitrogen氮 iv Aspirin阿斯匹靈 v Sulfurdioxide二氧化硫 vi Copper銅 atom molecule element compound 17 1 3SatesofMatter Iodine碘 Bromine溴 Chlorine氯 Fig1 7p 9 s l g 18 p 9 Solid s Gas g Liquid l Example1 2Models 19 1 4ChemicalandPhysicalProperties ChemicalpropertiesChemicalchange changesincomposition鎂燃燒生成氧化鎂PhysicalpropertiesAbsenceofanychangeofcomposition color density hardness meltingpoint boilingpoint andelectricalandthermalconductivitiesStatechange ice water steam ExtensiveProperties外延性質Dependsontheamountofmaterialinasample與尺度有關之性質 如重量 體積 熱 IntensiveProperties內涵性質Independentoftheamountofmaterialinasample與尺寸無關之性質 如密度 顏色 黏度 壓力 溫度 濃度 Notwodifferentsubstanceshaveidenticalsetsofchemicalandphysicalproperties 20 Fig 1 8 p 11 Endothermic absorbheat Exothermic releaseheat 蒸發 凝結 冷凍 溶化 昇華 沉澱 PhysicalChangesOccuramongthethreestatesofmatter 21 Fig 1 9a p 12 Physicalproperties meltsat0oCboilsat100oCdissolvesawiderangeofsubstances Chemicalproperties d waterreactsviolentlywithsodiumtoformhydrogengasandsodiumhydroxide Water 22 Table1 2 p 12 醋酸 苯 溴 鐵 甲烷 氧氣 氯化鈉 23 Fig 1 10 p 13 1 5Chemicalandphysicalchanges ChemicalchangeOneormoresubstancesareusedupOneormorenewsubstancesareformedEnergyisabsorbedorreleasedPhysicalchangeNochangeinchemicalcompositionChangeinenergy solid liquid liquid gas 24 p 13 1 6Mixtures Substances Compounds andElements MixturehavevariablecompositionMaybeseparatedbyphysicalmethodscomponentsretainitspropertiesMixtureofdifferentcomponentsmayhavewidelydifferentpropertiesHeterogeneousmixture非均勻混合物DonothavesamecompositionthroughoutComponentsaredistinguishableSaltandcharcoal foggyair vegetablesoupHomogeneousmixture solution HavesamecompositionthroughoutComponentsareindistinguishableSaltwater alloys air Galena 方鉛礦 andquartz 石英 25 Fig 1 11a p 15 Amixtureofironandsulfurisaheterogeneousmixture Itcabeseparatedbyphysicalmeans suchasremovingtheironwithmagnet 26 Fig 1 12 p 15 27 Electrolysisapparatusforsmall scalechemicaldecompositionofwaterbyelectricenergy 88 9 11 1 Fig 1 13 p 16 Chemicaldecompositionofliquidwater Waterasacompound 28 Fig 1 14 p 17 Compound CompoundCalciumOxide elements Fig1 14Diagramofthedecompositionofcalciumcarbonate elements Acompoundisapuresubstanceconsistingoftwoormoredifferentelementsinafixedratio LawofdefiniteProportions定比定律 LawofConstantComposition Heat CompoundCarbondioxide 29 Fig 1 15 p 17 Thephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofacompoundaredifferentfromthepropertiesofitsconstituentelements SodiumChloride NaCl WhitesolidThiscompoundisformedbythecombinationofsodiumandchlorideSodiumAsoft silverywhitemetalChlorideApalegreen corrosive poisonousgasNa Cl NaClLightandHeatProduce 30 Table1 3 p 18 硼 鋇 鉍 溴 鎘 鈣 碳 氯 鈷 鉻 銅 金 鋁 銀 氦 汞 碘 鉀 鎂 鋰 氪 錳 氮 鈉 氖 氫 鐵 氟 鉛 鉑 硫 鍗 鍶 錫 矽 鈦 鈾 鎢 鋅 磷 氧 鎳 31 Table1 4 p 18 10 88naturallyoccurringelementsmakeupmorethan99 bymass Livingmatter Nobiologicalrole 32 Table1 5 p 19 1 7MeasurementsinChemistry 發光強度 電流 長度 質量 燭光 絕對溫標 莫耳數克分子量 時間 溫度 物質數量 TheinternationalSystemofUnits SI metricsystem公制 33 Table1 6 p 19 SI theinternationalsystemofunits 34 1 8UnitsofMeasurement Mass 質量 doesn tvaryasitspositionchangeWeight 重量 isameasureofthegravitationalattractionoftheearthforthebody andthisvarieswithdistancefromthecenteroftheearth Triple beambalance 0 01g三樑天平 Electronictop loadbalance 0 001g電子秤 Analyticalbalance 0 0001g電子分析天平 Fig 1 16a p 20 35 Fig 1 171 18 p 21 Length inch centimeter Volume Beaker150ml燒杯 buret25ml玻璃量管 volumetricflask1000ml定量瓶 Graduatedcylinder100ml量筒 volumetricpipet10ml定量吸管 Flask錐形瓶 Liters 1000cm3 milliliter 1cm3 1cc 36 Table1 8 p 21 AppendixCCommonUnits Equivalences andConversionFactorsPageA 8toA 10intextbook 37 Fig 1 19 p 23 1 9UseofNumbers ScientificNotation科學記數法 4 300 000 4 3x1060 000348 3 48x10 4 SignificantFigures有效位數aredigitsbelievedtobecorrectbythepersonwhomakesameasurement Numbersobtainedbycounting exactnumbers Numbersobtainedmeasurementsarenotexact estimatenumbers 38 Thevolumeisreadatthebottomoftheliquidcurve meniscus Meniscusoftheliquidoccursatabout20 15mL Certaindigits 20 15Uncertaindigit 20 15 MeasurementofVolumeUsingaBuret Adigitthatmustbeestimatediscalleduncertain Ameasurementalwayshassomedegreeofuncertainty Recordthecertaindigitsandthefirstuncertaindigit theestimatednumber 39 Fig 1 20 p 24 SignificantFigures有效位數 Precision精確Degreeofagreementamongseveralmeasurementsofthesamequantity Accuracy準確Agreementofaparticularvaluewiththetruevalue 40 Neitheraccuratenorprecise Precisebutnotaccurate Bothpreciseandaccurate PrecisionandAccuracy 41 38 574significantfigure288g3significantfigure 1 Nonzerodigitsarealwayssignificant Somesimplerulesgoverntheuseofsignificantfigures 42 2 Zerosaresometimessignificant andsometimestheyarenota Zeroesatthebeginningofanumberareneversignificantb Zeroesbetweennonzerodigitsarealwayssignificantc Zeroesattheendofanumberthatcontainsadecimalpointarealwayssignificantd Zeroesareattheendofanumberthatdoesnotcontainadecimalpointmayormaynotbesignificant 0 0522significantfigure5 2x10 20 003643significantfigure3 64x10 3b 20074significantfigure6 083significantfigure c 38 03significantfigure440 04significantfigured 24 300km3 4 5significantfigure2 43x1042 430 x1042 4300 x104 43 3 Exactnumberscanbeconsideredashavinganunlimitednumberofsignificantfigures Thisappliestodefinedquantities 1yard 3feet1 3areexactDonoapplytherulesofsignificantfigures1inch 2 54cm 44 ExampleSignificantFigures Givethenumberofsignificantfiguresforeachofthefollowingresults a Astudent sextractionprocedureonteayields0 0105gofcaffeineb Achemistrecordsamassof0 050080ginananalysisc Inanexperimentaspanoftimeisdeterminedtobe8 050 x10 3sec a 0 0105g 1 05x10 2g 3significantfiguresb 0 050080g 5 0080 x10 2g 5significantfiguresc 8 050 x10 3sec 4significantfigures 45 4 Inadditionandsubtraction thelastdigitretainedinthesumordifferenceisdeterminedbythepositionofthefirstdoubtfuldigit a Add37 24mland10 3ml37 24ml 10 3ml47 54mlisreportedas47 5ml b Subtract21 2342from27 8127 87g 21 2342g6 6358gisreportedas6 64g 46 5 Inmultiplicationanddivision ananswercontainsnomoresignificantfiguresthantheleastnumberofsignificantfiguresusedintheoperation 4 56x1 4 6 4 twosignificantfiguresWhatistheareaofarectangle1 23cmwideand12 34cmlong A lxw 12 34cm x 1 23cm 15 2cm2 calculatorresult 15 1782 Exercise32 47 Example SignificantFiguresinMathematicalOperations Carryoutthefollowingmathematicaloperations andgiveeachresultwiththecorrectnumberofsignificantfigures a 1 05x10 3 6 135b 21 13 8c 2 560 x 8 8 275 15 a 1 05x10 3 6 135 1 71x10 4 3significantfiguresb 21 13 8 7 Thenumberwiththeleastnumberdecimalplaces 21 hasnonec 2 560 8 8 275 15 0 0835908Theleastprecisemeasurementhas2significantfigures8 4x10 2 48 1 10TheUnitFactorMethod DimensionalAnalysis因次分析 Example1 5UnitFactorExpress1 47mi ininches Miles feet inches1mile 5 280ft1ft 12inch UnitFactor afactorinwhichthenumeratoranddenominatorareexpressedindifferentunitsbutrepresentthesameorequivalentamounts 1ft 12in 1 12in ft 1 1ft 12inThereciprocalofanyunitfactorisalsoaunitfactor in 1 47mix mi x ft 9 31x104in 93139 2 UnitConversion VolumeCalculation MassConversion VolumeConversion EnergyConversion English MetricConversion Factor labelMethod Exercise36 UnitConversion 49 Example1 6UnitConversionThe ngestrom isaunitoflength1x10 10m thatprovidesaconvenientscaleonwhichtoexpresstheradiiofatoms Radiiofatomsareoftenexpressedinnanometers Theradiusofaphosphorusatomis1 10 whatisthedistanceexpressedincentimetersandnanometers UnitConversion 1 1 1 10 x10 8cm cm x 1x10 2m 1 x 1 1 1 10 x10 1nm nm x 1x10 9m 1 x 50 Example Express9 32yardsinmillimeters Example Express627millilitersingallons 9 32yd 8 52x103mm mm x mm 9 32yd 0 166155gal 0 166gal mm 627ml gal 51 Example Express2 61x104cm2inft2 Example Express2 61ft3incm3 28 09380619ft2 28 1ft2 ft2 2 61x104cm2 x x 2 2 73906 9696cm3 7 39x104cm3 cm3 3 x 3 52 p 31 1 11Percentage U S penniesmadesince1982consistof97 6 zincand2 4 copper Themassofaparticularpennyismeasurestobe1 494grams Howmanygramsofzincdoesinthispennycontain 1 494gsamplex 100gsample 1 46gzinc Exercise63 64 53 p 31 Tabl11 9 p 32 1 12DensityandSpecificGravity密度與比重 Density Volume D V g cm3org mlforsolidsandliquids g Lforgases gasoline water cork oak mercury brass 54 Example1 13A47 3 mlsampleofethylalcoholhasamassof37 32g Whatisthedensity p 32 D V 37 32g 47 3ml 0 789g ml Exercise40 Example1 14If116gofethanolisneedforachemicalreaction whatvolumeofliquidwouldyouuse V D 0 789g ml 147ml Exercise42 Example1 15Expressthedensityofmercuryinlb ft3 Mercurydensity 13 59g cm3 13 59 848 4lb ft3 x 453 6g x 3 3 D V m DxV V D 55 p 33 Specificgravity比重Theratioofitsdensitytothedensityofwater bothatthesametemperature Dice Dwater Dsolidethanol Dliquidethanol Example1 16Thedensityoftablesaltis2 16g mlat20oC Whatisitsspecificgravity Sp Gr Dwater 1 00g ml 2 16 56 Example1 17SpecificGravity Volume PercentagebyMassBatteryacidis40 0 sulfuricacid H2SO4 and60 waterbymass Itsspecificgravityis1 31 CalculatethemassofpureH2SO4in100mlofbatteryacid 100gsol 100 0mlsol 52 4gH2SO4 x 100gsol 1mlsol x H2SO4 Exercise48 40 H2SO4 Inthiscase thespecificgravityequaltothedensity 1 31g ml 57 Fig1 22 p 33 1 13HeatandTemperature Heatisaformofenergythatalwaysflowsspontaneouslyfromahotterbodytoacolderbody itneverflowsthereversedirection HotterBody ColderBody TemperatureMeasure MercurythermometerCentigradetemperaturescale0oC100oCFahrenheittemperaturescale32oF212oFKelvin absolute temperaturescale K oC 273 15oor oC K 273 15o FahrenheitandCentigradeRelationships oF 1 8x oC 32oF 58 Example1 18TemperatureConversionWhenthetemperaturereaches 100oF intheshade it shot WhatisthistemperatureontheCelsiusscale oC 1 8 1 8 38oC Example1 19TemperatureConversionWhentheabsolutetemperatureis400K whatisthisFahrenheittemperature oC K 273 15o 400 273 127oC oF 1 8x oC 32oF 1 8x127 32oF 261oF Exercise50 59 1 14HeatTransferandtheMeasurementofHeat Joule J theSIunitofenergyandworkjob1J 1kg m2 s2Kineticenergy 動能 1 2mv2Calorie 4 184J Specificheat 比熱 theamountofheatrequiredtoraisedthetemperatureofonegramofthesubstanceonedegreeCelsiuswithnochangeinphaseAphysicalproperty isdifferentforthesolid liquidandgaseousphaseofthesubstanceAppendixE Spec