Application of Politeness Principle in Business Negotiation.doc

毕业论文(设计)Application of Politeness Principle in Business Negotiation1. Introduction12. Language features of business negotiation32.1 Idiomatic and professionalized terms32.2 Vague language32.3 Logical and persuasive language43. Politeness principle and relevant theories63.1 Politeness principle and its maxims63.3 Politeness strategies94. Application of politeness strategy114.1 Application of tact maxim114.2 Application of generosity maxim124.3 Application of approbation maxim144.4 Application of euphemistic expressions155. Conclusion17References191. Introduction In business, it is mostly through negotiation that exporters and importers bridge the difference and reach a fair and mutually satisfactory deal (Liao Ying, 2004:1). Business negotiation plays an essential role in business, for the buyers and the sellers need to communicate and negotiate before concluding a transaction.Business negotiation is a kind of economic activity through which the parties involved seek the greatest gains. For the economic interest, both parties in negotiations have to compete against each other, but simultaneously have to cooperate with each other. Therefore, in spite of competition, both parties endeavor to create and keep the cooperative relationship through certain strategies and tactics. Language is a chief measure used in business negotiation. However, language is often taken for granted perhaps because it is used every day, and its powers left unexamined unless serious problems with its use arise. Negotiators may have their attention focused on the more material aspects of an issue they are discussing, and neglect the fundamental role language is playing in the representation of the aspects. Yet if the language used is inadequate for its purposes, or the representation is at fault, the whole interaction may falter or fail. Successful negotiators do not take language for granted in the difficult and complex world of human interaction. Cohen Herbert, a famous American negotiating expert, points out that a successful negotiation does not mean “winning by defeating the other party, but winning by getting what both parties want”. Thus a harmonious, friendly and cooperative atmosphere can keep a negotiation go on smoothly. Some appropriate strategies and tactics of language should be carried out to smooth the negotiation. Among them, politeness can work as the effective negotiation strategy. The ultimate goal of politeness is “the attainment of community” (Leech, 1983:104). In other words, politeness strategy can enhance the mutual trust and understanding so as to increase the odds for negotiation success. To start with, the author would like to highlight some of the main theories concerning about politeness and its verbal strategies before moving into the application of politeness principle in business negotiation.2. Language features of business negotiation2.1 Idiomatic and professionalized termsThere are a set of language rules accepted through common practice in business negotiation, such as how to greet each other, how to make a wish, how to accept or refuse an invitation, how to bargain or compromise.When a negotiator says “hoping to put the proposed idea into your further considerations”, this means the negotiators havent reached agreement to some idea. If he says: “Well, to that matter, I would make a report and discuss it with my superior”, this shows the negotiation faces a very difficult problem. The speaker delays adjustment for gaining advantages without deploying new plan. When he says “We have had talks and both have fully expressed our opinion”, it indicates that the negotiators have a certain reservation, they have not made a clear, detailed result to some problems.To sum up, idiomatic and professionalized terms are necessary in business negotiation.2.2 Vague languageVagueness in pragmatics is by no means a cause of frustration, depression or anxiety in discourse; on the contrary, no matter what kind of vagueness a propositional content may have, it is of positive significance.Sometimes speakers cannot express their idea clearly, or they would not like to say it clearly for some pragmatic purpose, in which cases they prefer to put vague language to rational use. The vagueness of negotiation language serves the purpose and need of negotiators. To some extent, the uncertainty of description is not negative but positive. For example:(1) To be frank, it would be very difficult for us to market your product at the priced offered.(2) Well get in touch with our manufacturers and try our best to advance the time of delivery. The proper usage of vague words can enable negotiators to act freely to maintain a harmonious atmosphere, avoid making situation tense. In sentence (1), the speaker does his best to persuade his listener to reduce price. The vague phrasing “difficult”, rather than “impossible”, makes the return possible. Similarly, in sentence (2), the phrase “try our best” is much more flexible, conveying blurred information to the listener. This is the speakers intended purpose. Vague language also serves as one of the politeness strategies in business negotiation, which will be discussed later.2.3 Logical and persuasive languageThe actual process of negotiation, in essence, is simply a process of bargaining with each other and persuading each other. Look at the following example:A: To be frank, it would be very difficult for us to market your produce at the price offered.B: Our price is in line with the world market. Its workable.A: We have been approached by other suppliers with offers about 10% lower than yours.B: 10% lower? Its impossible. Have you compared our product with theirs? Are they the same class?A: Your product may have certain advantages over theirs, but the price gap shouldnt be as big as 10%. Well have to turn to other suppliers if you dont make some reduction.B: What did you have in mind?A: A reduction of 5% is only reasonable.B: Im afraid youre asking too much. A 5% reduction is out of the question. We can never go as far as that. A: Then how much can you go down?B: To help you sell your product, well make an exception and reduce the price by 1%.A: This is the first business contact between us. I sincerely hope a transaction can be concluded. Lets split the difference and meet each other half way.B: I appreciate what you said. As a gesture of our good will, we accept your offer.A: Thank you.In the above conversation, the logical coherence in persuading each other finally leads the hard deal to a success. The whole bargaining process is linked by such key sentences as: “What did you have in mind?”, “Then how much can you go down?”In a word, negotiators try their best to persuade the other and every omission may result in the loss of millions, or even billions of benefits during negotiation. Under this circumstance, negotiators have to take some effective language strategies to realize the given goals. 3. Politeness principle and relevant theories3.1 Politeness principle and its maximsAccording to He Ziran, politeness is one of the major social constraints on human interaction regulating participants communicative behavior by constantly reminding them to take into consideration the feelings of the others. Face, the central concept of politeness, is taken to be important to individuals in both a positive and negative aspect. In 1975, Grice introduced the Cooperative Principle and four conversational maxims, namely, the maxim of quantity, quality, relation and manner. However, sometimes the speakers dont obey, or even deliberately go against the maxims of the Cooperative Principle in communication. Based on this principle, Brown & Levinson, and Leech put forward a completely new theory of utterance principle, which is known as the Politeness Principle (PP). Brown & Levinson (1978) point out that utterance has a relation with social relationship and culture. Owing to politeness, while Leech (1983) thinks, speakers deliberately go against the Cooperative Principle. Leech introduces the Politeness Principle, which can be summed up in two aspects: to minimize (all things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs, and to maximize (all things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs. Leech divides the principle into six maxims:Tact Maxima. Minimize cost to other; b. Maximize benefits to otherGenerosity Maxima. Minimize benefits to self; b. Maximize cost to selfApprobation Maxima. Minimize dispraise of other; b. Maximize praise of otherModesty Maxima. Minimize praise of self; b. Maximize dispraise of selfAgreement Maxima. Minimize disagreement between self and other; b. Maximize agreement betweenself and otherSympathy Maxima. Minimize antipathy between self and other; b. Maximize sympathy between selfand otherEach maxim has two sides of a problem: the former is other-centered and the latter is self-centered. Tact maxim and generosity maxim relate to the benefits between the speakers and the listeners, applicable in directives and commitments. Furthermore, tact maxim is applicable to others requests; generosity maxim is about how to help others.Approbation maxim and modesty maxim lay particular emphasis on the evaluation to self and others, applicable in expressiveness and assertiveness. Compliments should be paid while others should be praised. As to modesty maxim, devaluing oneself is polite for self-praise is impolite. Agreement maxim and sympathy maxim tend to focus on self-attitude to others, applicable in assertiveness. Agreement maxim proposes no direct disagreements with others. This will explain why we say firstly some apologies before making different opinions. The six maxims are often used in interpersonal communication. In the following parts in this paper, we will mainly adopt some of these maxims in our analysis of business negotiation.3.2 The face theoryThe face theory is put forward by Brown & Levinson. As a technical term, face means the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Within their everyday social interactions, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected. If a speaker says something that represents a threat to another individuals expectations regarding self-image, it is described as a face-threatening act (FTA). Alternatively, if some action might be interpreted as a threat to anothers face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is called a face-saving act. There are two aspects: positive face and negative face. A persons positive face indicates the need to be accepted, even liked by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that others share his or her wants, while a persons negative face refers to the need to be independent, to have freedom of actions, and not to be imposed on by others. According to Brown & Levinson, people involved in communication should properly use some effective measures and strategies to save each others face in order to keep communication smooth, the same is true in negotiation. The polite language is the best pragmatic strategies (He Ziran, 1997:105).3.3 Politeness strategiesBrown & Levinson suggest some politeness strategies to save face, such as positive politeness strategy, negative politeness strategy and off-record politeness strategy. A face-saving act which is concerned with the persons positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want the same thing, and that they have a common goal. This is also called positive politeness. In other words, positive language is redressed directly to the listeners positive face, his wants or his actions should be thought of as desirable. It refers to language strategies that attend to peoples needs to be appreciated and approved of; positive politeness strategies are communicative ways of building solidarity, showing that the other is liked and seen as desirable. For example:(3) Upon hearing from you about your usual requirements, we shall be happy to send you catalogs.A face-saving act which is oriented to the persons negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the others time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interruption. This is also called negative politeness. In other words, negative politeness is redressed action addressed to the listeners negative face: his want to have freedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded. It refers to the communicative strategies interactants use to express recognition of others needs for freedom from restraint. Negative politeness is most similar to what people in everyday life mean by “being polite”. Doing things is like offering an apology. For example:(4) Im sure you must be busy, but could you possibly spare me just five minutes?The motivation to use linguistic realizations of positive politeness and negative politeness is totally different. Negotiators adopt linguistic choices to support positive face for the purpose of decreasing social distance; they make painstaking efforts to support negative face in the view of increasing social distance. However, no matter that it is to decrease or increase distance, the two different linguistic means serve the same purposesave face.Many people seem to prefer to have their needs recognized by others without having to express those needs in language. When those needs are recognized, then clearly more has been communicated than has been said. Even if they decide to say something, they dont actually have to ask for anything. He can hint his need or express his needs equivocally and generally. For example:(5) Uh, I forgot my pen. (=Would you like to lend me your pen?)(6) I wouldnt buy that if I were you. (= Dont buy that.)All these theories above can be applicable in business negotiation, but before summarizing the way of using the theories, the author would like to introduce business negotiation first.4. Application of politeness strategy4.1 Application of tact maximIn Leechs Politeness Principle, tact maxim indicates to minimize others cost and maximize others benefits. International negotiation is a field of considerable interest in the age of economy globalization. Within business negotiation there is one major problem: how proper wording is achieved to save the speakers face and/or the hearers face and especially its result on the hearer. In order to smooth the negotiation, the following acts need to be avoided:1) Acts like requesting and requiring. The acts are probably the most face-threatening in its various forms, which can be as severe as command or order, putting pressure on the hearer to do something he or she may not want to do. For example: I want you to answer the phone.2) Acts like giving advice or suggestion, which are less strong than request, but which nonetheless put pressure on the hearer to take the advice or follow the suggestion. For example: All wise office managers around the country order Gold Fish-the most efficient of all office typewriters.No one will be persuaded by such kind of way, for he has been hurt.3) Acts like warning which, in one sense, imply that the speaker will take action in the future to inhibit the hearers freedom, as in “Im warning you, dont seek to claim damages.” This utterance can never be acceptable.4) Acts like over-humbling, for example: “We are extremely and sincerely sorry for the error and ask that you accept our humble and sincere apology for the undue inconvenience suffered by you.” It seems more acceptable to put it in this way: “We are concerned about the inconvenience you have suffered, and apologize sincerely.” To sum up, negotiators should not use offensive or over polite language. They should adopt suitable language according to different situations, and its the key to maintain a harmonious atmosphere.4.2 Application of generosity maximGenerosity Maxim means to minimize self-benefits and to maximize self-cost. When applied in business negotiation, it indicates that negotiation should adopt “other attitude” rather than “self-attitude”.In most of the time, a negotiator needs to satisfy his counterpart in negotiation. When he finds his counterparts requirements is within his scale of offer, he tends to act quite generously in the gesture of giving. Although the generosity is expressed more or less with the hope that the counterpart would reciprocate on some other terms, there are always some issues that negotiator can agree upon without preservation. At such time, the negotiator tends to employ positive words that can express his happiness in meeting the counterparts demand and indicate the actions that have been taken to cooperate. For example:(7) We are rushing the documents to you by Air Express.(8) We have duly studied your counterproposal. We hereby provide our official response that we accept it.(9) Wed be happy to settle in a manner most convenient for you.(10) I will try my best to give you a reply as soon as possible.(11) Well give you a 3% commission as an exception.(12) To support you in pushing sales, we grant you a special discount of 10%.(13) You can choose from a very good selection of winter clothes at the Chinas Autumn Export Commodities Fair.(14) I have no problem with that. Your proposal appears to be acceptable.(15) We are prepared to be flexible over the term of payment.In the above sentences, words and phrases such as “rushing”, “duly”, “try my best” and “as an exception” indicate the speakers effort to satisfy the other party and convey the importance his pa