瓦愣纸包装的功能要求外文翻译.doc

毕 业 设 计外 文 文 献 译 文 及 原 文题目：年产10万吨高强瓦愣纸制浆造纸综合工厂 重点：日产300吨OCC制浆车间（芯层设计）学 生： 叶 柳 学 号： 11403327 院 （系）： 造纸工程学院 专 业： 制浆造纸工程 指导教师： 2007 年 6 月 18日FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CORRUGATED PACKAGING This section analyzes functional requirements for corrugated boxes. Part A describes the different distribution environments that were considered for this analysis. Part B examines general trends that shape the box industry. Part C shows how these functional needs translate into specific performance characteristics. A. Distribution Environment This paper considers two types of distribution systems: shipments in corrugated boxes in bulk and single package shipments. In the first environment, a set of boxes typically is transported from a manufacturer to a warehouse or point-of-sale by truck or railroad. In this case, boxes may be stacked on pallets and handled by a forklift or similar equipment. Corrugated boxes must perform on packaging equipment, e.g. filling lines, and within the distance and conditions of transportation and warehousing. Most box specifications are developed by users, working with their suppliers, to meet true performance needs. Unless they use their own transportation fleets, manufacturers will determine box specifications based on the rules of the American Trucking Association (National Motor Freight Classifications) or the National Freight Railroad Committee (Uniform Freight Classifications). These two organizations specify detailed box performance criteria that must be met in order for their members to accept the liability for the damage to any shipments. According to one expert, the top five trucking companies in the U.S. incur approximately $ 35 million in annual payments for damages.The most important guidelines focus on box strength and are outlined in Item 222 and the new Item 180 of the National Motor Freight Classifications and Rule 41 of the Uniform Freight Classifications. Details are provided in Section I.B. Most large packaging users have their own defined specifications and requirements that are developed with the knowledge of these “rules.” In the second environment, single boxes are transported from a manufacturer to individual destinations by a small parcel carrier, such as the United States Postal Service (U.S. Postal Service), United Parcel Service (UPS) or Federal Express Corporation (FedEx), all of whom were interviewed in the preparation of this paper.Other carriers include Amtrak Express, Greyhound/ Trailways Package Express, air cargo provided by various airlines and other parcel services. In this distribution environment, corrugated boxes must endure handling by automated parcel processing systems and the varying conditions of transportation. For instance, at FedEx, each package is physically handled 10-18 times from pick-up to delivery. In this environment, boxes are more likely to be dropped and are in contact with other customers packages. The small parcel carriers have developed basic packaging guidelines, but not at the level of detail provided in the National Motor Freight Classifications or the Uniform Freight Classifications. The guidelines limit maximum box weight and size.The small parcel carriers allow their customers to choose the type of packaging and the packaging material. They agree that in many cases, the interior packaging or cushioning is more important than the outer packaging for drop and vibration resistance. For high volume customers, the three carriers we interviewed suggest package testing according to the International Safe Transit Association Preshipment Test Procedures.In addition, the U.S. Postal Service has issued minimum box strength requirements dependent on various box characteristics. UPS has developed internal box strength specifications dependent on the gross weight of the box. It should be noted that in this environment many boxes are used without prior testing and the quality of the box only becomes an issue when it fails. More details are provided in sections I.B. and I.C. In addition to the general distribution system, box specifications depend on the specific product to be packaged and on individual issues in the distribution environment. For example, the box for a personal computer sold in a retail store would have somewhat different functional requirements than a box of napkins shipped to a restaurant. The emphasis placed on box purchasing as part of the whole manufacturing operation varies. Large quantity box buyers use in-house packaging engineers, working closely with their corrugated suppliers in most instances. Smaller quantity buyers use the services provided by box manufacturers. In addition, box buyers also use independent consultants. B. General Trends in Corrugated Packaging Various trends are shaping the development of the containerboard industry. Customer requests to reduce costs and environmental impacts have motivated containerboard manufacturers to maintain or increase box performance while using less material and/or more recycled material. For the growing number of boxes that reach the end-consumer, box appearance is a more important functional requirement. On the supply side, environmental benefits and mill and converting economics have caused containerboard manufacturers to shift their investments in new capacity from virgin to recycled fiber and to develop high performance containerboard. 1. High Performance Containerboard and Performance-Oriented Testing StandardsDefinitions for “high performance containerboard” vary. The common denominator is that high performance containerboard is manufactured to add compression strength to the containerboard, the corrugated board, and the finished box. The term “compression strength” is used both in a general sense and as an actual specification for the finished box. It is an indicator for the stacking strength of boxes. The specific measure of compression strength for the corrugated board is edge crush strength, and for linerboard and corrugating medium, it is ring crush strength or STFI. (See Appendix B for description of testing methods.) Various industry representatives confirm that a minimum of two pounds of ring crush strength per pound of fiber is a typical value for high performance containerboard; however higher levels are achieved by some containerboard producers as they strive for competitive advantage.In addition to compression strength, other more minor performance characteristics have been attributed to high performance containerboard, depending upon the mill, its fiber supply and its process. They include more uniform sheet formation, moisture absorption, caliper, and consistent water and ink absorption.For most industry experts, the term “high performance containerboard” implies lightweighting of the board while maintaining stacking performance. Alternatively, it can imply increasing stacking performance while maintaining weight. For bulk shipment of boxes, the acceptance of high performance containerboard was facilitated by alternative specifications added to Item 222 in the National Motor Freight Classifications and Rule 41 of the Uniform Freight Classifications. Traditionally, rules stipulated specifications for the strength performance of the corrugated board used to make the box rather than the box itself. They also mandated minimum facing (liner) weights. Within the last five years, the rules have been amended twice and more flexible performance requirements have been added. Before 1991, under the prior transportation specifications, depending on the dimensions and the combined weight of the box and its contents, corrugated board was required to have a certain basis weight in combination with a certain level of burst strength. Burst strength measures the force that is required to burst through a piece of containerboard or corrugated board. Because burst strength is somewhat related to the basis weight (the average weight per 1000 square feet) of the corrugated board, the two measures are used in combination. On March 31, 1991, edge crush strength was added to the above freight carrier rules as an alternative to the burst strength requirement. The Edge Crush Test (ECT) measures the force that is required to crush a small on-edge sample of corrugated board. The new crush strength parameter is a more performance-oriented parameter that in many instances is more directly related to content protection than is the burst strength/basis weight requirement. The crush strength parameter facilitated both source reduction and adding recycled content. Source reduction can be achieved by lightweighting the board without compromising the compression performance of the box. More details on lightweighting are provided in Section III. A. Using the ECT as the strength performance measure, some manufacturers can also use more recovered fiber. Under the old basis weight/burst strength requirement, recovered fibers were disadvantaged because burst strength is related to fiber length and recovered fibers are relatively shorter than virgin fibers. Under the new ECT measure, this relative disadvantage is reduced for recovered fibers. The impact of increased recycled content levels are described in Section II. At some mills, source reduction and adding recycled content can be achieved simultaneously. Recovered fiber from OCC has a relative advantage as the fiber source for lightweight containerboard compared to heavyweight containerboard. Recovered fiber has lower freeness than unbleached kraft pulp, that is, it drains water less readily on the paper machine. Because water can be pressed out of a thinner sheet more easily, recycled fiber is better suited for lightweight containerboard than it is for heavier board.High performance containerboard offers additional benefits. In the converting process, lightweight containerboard requires fewer roll changes and lowers roll stock storage costs, because more square feet of board are contained on the same size roll. In addition, corrugators benefit from improved runability and more consistent board quality. Box users benefit from increased stacking height, higher uniformity of performance and/or lower freight costs.Due to fiber savings in manufacturing, per box prices do not necessarily increase when high performance containerboard is used. Box prices may decrease when heavier board is reduced in basis weight. One industry expert currently attributes a 30-35% market share to high performance containerboard, using the broader definition of lightweighted containerboard and/or containerboard with other benefits. The same source estimates the size of the high performance lightweight linerboard segment to be 1.6 million tons in 1993, corresponding to 8% of all linerboard produced in the U.S., and projects this segment to grow to 2.5 million tons by 1998.While the adoption of the ECT standard promoted the success of high performance containerboard, the ECT is still a material-based rather than a packaging-based test method. For the box buyer, the most important criterion is most often the compression strength of the finished box, which determines stacking height. Naturally, the compression strength of the paper will largely determine the compression strength of the box, but the corrugating and converting processes are additional determining factors. Careless converting practices can reduce box stacking strength significantly. To give box buyers and manufacturers even greater flexibility, another alternative packaging rule (Item 180) was added to Item 222 in the National Motor Freight Classifications on January 1, 1995. This rule includes a set of tests that measure the performance of the whole package rather than that of the corrugated board. The tests measure compression/vibration and impact/handling. Compression measures the resistance of a whole box to uniformly applied forces. It can be measured side-to-side or end-to-end, or, most importantly, top-to-bottom. Vibration tests can be performed on individual boxes or in combination with the compression test by vibrating boxes that are stacked on top of each other. Impact/handling tests include free fall drop tests, incline impact or pendulum impact tests and raised edge drop tests. The new rule is also more flexible in allowing palletized loads with plastic shrink wrap as an alternative packaging form. While Item 180 offers more flexibility to some box users in designing their total package, other box users find it more time consuming and expensive to put a package through this procedure than to test for burst strength or ECT.Opinions vary on whether the move from measuring burst strength to compression strength is justified in the single package environment.FedEx regards compression strength as the more important specification. The relevant measure in their distribution system is dynamic compression, which results when boxes are stacked on top of each other during transportation. UPS has developed alternative burst test and ECT requirements for its internal use based on the gross weight of the box. The requirements are similar to Item 222/Rule 41. According to UPS, box users should determine the appropriate box strength measure based on the nature of the product being shipped. For heavy and dense products, such as soup cans, UPS considers burst strength to be the crucial measure. For products that are less dense and less likely to puncture the box, such as fabric and books, edge crush strength would be more important. The U.S. Postal Service has not yet evaluated the relevance of burst strength versus compression strength. Their current packaging guidelines have not been revised for many years, and require minimum burst strength dependent on the type of load, the gross weight and dimensions of the box.The small parcel carriers agree with the move to measuring the performance of the whole box rather than that of the corrugated board, although the particular characteristics of their distribution environment have to be taken into account. FedEx and UPS were both involved in the development of Item 180 of the National Motor Freight Classifications. Vibration, drop and incline impact testing have long been encouraged by the small parcel carriers. These tests are part of the International Safe Transit Association (ISTA) Preshipment Test Procedures which essentially evaluate the performance of the whole package and are recommended by the small parcel carriers. UPS even goes further in suggesting drop tests from 10 orientations rather than 6 orientations as suggested in Item 180. On the other hand, UPS and FedEx agree that some of the test procedures such as forklift handling tests and static compression tests (i.e. when boxes are stacked on top of each other in a warehouse) do not reflect their distribution environment. Overall, for both shipments of boxes in bulk and as individual packages, compression strength has gained importance relative to burst strength. However, box users will ultimately decide on burst versus compression strength based on the particular distribution circumstances and the products to be shipped. Box manufacturers, box buyers and freight carriers agree with the need to evaluate the performance of the whole package. For functional, environmental and economic reasons, testing of the whole package including its contents is superior to adhering to general specifications. 瓦愣纸包装的功能要求这部分分析了瓦愣纸箱的功能要求。A部分描述了这次分析所考虑到的不同的运输环境。B部分考查了纸箱工业的大体趋势。C部分说明了这些功能要求怎样转化成具体的工作性能。A 运输环境这编文章考虑到了两种运输系统：大批的瓦愣纸箱运输和单个包装运输。在第一种环境下，一套纸箱特地从厂商或卖场通过卡车或铁路运输到仓库。在这样情况下，纸箱可能会被堆在货盘上，并且通过叉车或类似设备来装卸。瓦愣纸箱必需依靠包装设备，如填充生产线，并且要在运输和入库的距离和条件允许之内完成任务的。大多数的瓦愣纸箱的使用规范是由其使用者和供应商共同发展来制订出来的迎合真实的使用性能需要。除非他们使用他们自己的运输队，否则他们将使用基于美国货车运输协会（国家机动车辆货物分类）或者是国家货运铁路委员会（统一货物分类）的规定。这两个组织指定了详细的瓦愣纸箱使用标准，该标准要求其成员承担对任何运输的赔偿责任。跟据一位专家所说，在美国排名前五位的载重汽车运输公司每年招致大约三千五百万美元的货运损失赔款。这最重要的指导方针集中在纸箱的强度上，并且在国家机动车辆货物分类的第222条与新条规第180条和统一货物分类第41规条中都说明了这一点。详细的在第I.B部分给予了规定。大多数大的包装客户有其自己规定的规范和要求，这些规范和要求要附合这些国家的规则来发展。在第二种环境下，单个的瓦愣纸箱从制造商运输到个人的所在地，是通过小的打包邮寄，例如美国邮递公司、联合邮递公司或者联邦快递有限公司，所有这些公司都在准备这编文章时被访问过了。其它的邮递公司还包括（美国）全国铁路客运公司、美国灰狗长途汽车公司/汽车包裹快递、由不同航班和其它包裹邮递公司提供的空中货运。在这种运输环境下，瓦愣纸箱必须能够承受得起自动包裹处理系统的处理和运输过程中不断变化的环境。例如在联邦快递有限公司，每个包裹从取出到运输出去都经过了1018次物理处理。在这种环境下，纸箱更容易被摔下和跟其它客户的包裹接触。这些小的包裹邮递公司已经发展了基本的包装指导方针，但不同于国家机动车辆货物分类或统一货物分类的详细规定。这个指导方针限制了纸箱包裹的最大重量和尺寸。小的包裹邮递公司允许他们的客户选择打包的类型和材料。在很多情况下，他们都同意货物的内部包装或者缓振比起外部防止摔倒和振动阻力的包装更重要。对于打包大而重的客户，这三个我们访问过的邮递公司建议包裹的测试应跟据国际安全过境协会重装物检查法来进行。另外，美国邮电公司跟据不同纸箱特性已经发布了最小纸箱强度要求。美国邮电公司跟据纸箱的总重量发展了国内纸箱强度规范。在这种许多纸箱没有被预先的测试就使用的情况下记录下来，而只有当纸箱不合格时其的质量才成为问题。更多的细节请见I.B和I.C部分。除了常规货运系统外，纸箱的规格跟据具体产品和个别在货运环境中的要求来进行包装。例如，一个装着要在零售店出售的个人电脑的纸箱应该跟装着运送去饭店的餐巾纸纸箱在功能要求方面有所不同。重点跟据纸箱的购买作为整个制造过程的一部分不同而不同。在大多数情况下，大批量纸箱的买家们使用他们内部的与他们的瓦愣纸箱供应商密切合作的包装工程师。小规模纸箱购买商使用纸箱厂家提供的服务。另外，纸箱买家也可以使用独立顾问。B 瓦愣纸包装的大体趋势箱板纸工业的发展正在形成各种各样的趋势。消费者要求减少成本，并且环境的影响已经促使箱板纸制造商在使用更少的材料和/或更多的可循环回用材料的同时去维持或者提高纸箱的性能。由于不断增长的纸箱被终端消费者所接触，纸箱的外观是一个更重要的功能要求。就供应商方面来说，环境受益和工厂与转型经济已经导致箱板纸制造商去转变他们的投资，从原始的材料的投资到可回收使用纤维的投资来发展高性能的箱板纸。1高性能箱板纸和性能方向测试标准高性能箱板纸的定义是不同的。通常的定义是高性能箱板纸指制造出增加对箱纸板、瓦愣纸板、成品纸箱的压缩强度。压缩强度这个词是用在某个大体的意义上和作为对成品纸箱的一个真实的规格。它是一个指示纸箱堆压强度的指标。测量瓦愣纸板的压缩强度的方法是边缘压碎强度测定，对于挂面纸和瓦愣芯纸，是测定其环压强度或STFI。（看附录B来查看测试方法的说明。）不同的行业有代表性的测定结果证明对于高强箱纸板的标准值是每吨纤维的环压强度最小值为两磅。尽管如此，为了争取竞争优势，比标准水平更高的值也被一些箱纸板制造商完成了。除了压缩强度外，其它更多次要的性能特性也对高强度箱纸板的性能有影响，主要是工厂、其纤维原料的提供和处理过程。它们包括更多的均匀的纸页成形、湿气的吸收性、测径器和一致的水与油墨吸收性。对于大多数的工业专家来说，“高性能箱纸板”意味着轻的纸板同时又能维持堆压强度性能。作为选择，它也可以意味着维持重量的同时增加堆压强度性能。对于纸箱的整装运输来说，国家机动车辆货物分类的第222条或统一货物分类的第41条这二者中任一条都使高强性能箱纸板的运输方便。从传统上说，规则被制定为用来制造纸箱的瓦愣纸板的强度性能