应用化学专业英语第一单元The-Roots-Of-Chemistry.doc

。The Roots Of ChemistryChemistry can be broadly defines as the science of molecules and their transformations.化学可以广泛地定义为科学的分子和他们的转换。In contrast to mathematics,chemistry is older than people. 与数学不同，化学比人类更久远。The appearance of life and people on our planet (earth) is most probably the end result of specific chemical processes .生命的出现和人类生活在我们地球上都最可能是特殊化学过程的结果。Chemical processes have been present in the lives of people from the dawn of history until the present time .化学过程存从古至今存在人们的生活中。Initially ,these processes were not under our control 最初，这些过程不受我们的控制，,for instance ,the fermentation of fruit juice,the rotting of meat and fish ,and the burning of wood .例如，果汁的发酵，肉和鱼的腐烂，木材的燃烧。Later on we learned to control chemical processes and to use them to prepare a variety of different products such as food ,metals ,ceramics and leather .后来，我们学着控制化学过程，用它们来准备一系列不同的产品例如食物。In the development of chemistry ,four periods may be distinguished 在化学的发展中，四个阶段是突出的:prehistoric chemistry ,Greek chemistry ,alchemy ,and scientific chemistry. 史前化学，希腊化学，炼金术和科学化学The early beginnings of chemistry were clearly motivated by practical needs of people .早期的化学显然是出于实际的需要。The discovery of fire offered the first opportunity to prehistoric people to carry out controlled chemical processes .火的发现为远古人提供了第一个机会去实现控制化学反应过程。They learned to prepare objects made of copper, 他们学会制备铜制物品，bronze and other materials that were readily available.铜和其它材料是现成的。Since the use of chemical processes by these early people predates writing there are no written records about their chemical skills .由于化学过程的使用早于人们的书写，因而没有书面记录有关它们的化学技巧。One can judge their chemical abilities only from the archeological discoveries of various artifacts .可以判断他们的化学能力只有从考古的发现的各个手工艺品。What has been found indicates clearly that practical needs influenced the early development of chemistry ,已经发现的。as was the case for the early development of mathematics .正如早期的数学发展，清楚的预示着实际需求影响着化学的发展。But chemistry and mathematics at this stage probably did not interact .但化学和数学在这个阶段可能没有互相影响。If they did ,there is no record to establish this .如果它们影响了，但是没有记录证明这个。Greek chemistry was based mainly on speculation rather than on experiment .希腊化学主要基于猜测而不是实验。This was a common trait of all Greek science in antiquity .这是所有古代希腊化学的一个共同特征。The Greek scientist of antiquity was in fact the Greek philosopher ,古代希腊化学家实际是希腊哲学家。and so it is not surprising that the Greek were much more interested in contemplating than in experimenting .所以不足为奇的是希腊人思考比实验更有兴趣。Actually they seldom performed experiments outside of the thought experiment .实际上他们很少进行实验以外的思维实验。This was a good approach for mathematics but hardly one to recommend itself for the physical ,chemical or biological sciences .对于数学来说这是一个好方法，但没有一个人把它推荐在物理、化学或生物科学上。Nevertheless ,because the Greek thought a lot about the nature and structure of matter ,they can be considered as the creators of the first chemical theories .然而，由于希腊人思考了很多关于物质的性质和结构，他们可以被认为是第一个化学理论的创造者。The Greek introduced the concept of the element and proposed in all four elements .希腊人引入了元素的概念和假设了所有的四种元素。Thales (625-547 BC) of Miletus thought that all things were formed from one elementary substance ,namely water .米利都的泰利斯(公元前625 - 547 )认为所有的东西都有一种物质构成，被称为水。Anaximenes ( ca 585- ca 528 BC) ,also from Miletus ,accepted the idea of element ,but he believed that the single element from which all things are made is air .阿那克西米尼，同样来自米利都，接受了这种元素的概念，但他相信单个元素都是由空气组成。Heraclitus ( ca 540- 480 BC ) of Ephesus ,who considered that the fundamental characteristic of the universe is continuous change ,regarded fire as the element that embodied perpetual change .以弗所的赫拉克利特，他认为宇宙的基本特征是持续变化的，认为火元素是永远在变化的元素。Empedocles ( ca 490-ca 430 BC ) ,from the Greek city of Akragas in Sicily , 恩培多克勒来自希腊城费拉里斯在西西里，abandoned the idea of s single element and introduced the principle of four element : 放弃了单个元素的概念，介绍了四种元素的原则：water ,air ,fire and earth ,水、空气、火和土，and the two forces of attraction and repulsion that operate between them .相互之间的吸引和排斥在它们之间起作用。Empedocles is also known for his experimental proof that air is a material body .恩培多克勒还以他的实验证明出空气是一中物质而出名。The term element was first used by Plato (428-347 BC ) who assumed that the particles of each element have a specific shape ,even thought such particle are too small to be seen .元素这个术语是由柏拉图首次使用，他假设每个元素的粒子有一个特定的形状，甚至认为这种粒子是小得看不见。Thus ,the smallest particle of fire had the shape of a regular tetrahedron ;因而，火的最小粒子的形状为正四面体；of air a regular octahedron空气是正八面体； of water a regular icosahedron ,水是正十二面体，and of earth a cube ( or regular hexahedron ).土是立方体（或者正六面体）。The regular tetrahedron ,the regular octahedron ,the regular icosahedron and the cube are examples of regular polyhedra ,and there are in all five of them ;正四面体、正八面体、正十二面体、立方体是规则多面体的例子，所有的就这五个；the fifth is the regular dodecahedron .第五个是正十二面体。In regular polyhedra the surfaces are bounded by congruent regular polygons and the vertices are symmetrically equivalent to one another .正多面体的各个面之间都是相等的。Fire was thought to be the smallest ,most pointed and lightest among the elements because it can easily attack and destroy .在这些元素中火被认为是最小、最尖锐和最轻的元素，因为它可以很容易地攻击和摧毁。It seemed a natural choice that the regular tetrahedron ( which consists of four regular triangles ) be taken as the shape of fire ,since it is the smallest and most pointed among the regular polyhedra .这似乎是自然的选择常规四面体(其中包括四个正三角形)被视为火焰形状的,因为它在正多面体中是最小的、最尖锐的。Water was the largest ,smoothest and heaviest ,because it always flows smoothly into the valleys of the Earth .水是最大的、最光滑和最重的,因为它总在地球的峡谷流淌。Therefore ,it appeared a natural choice that the regular icosahedron ,composed of twenty regular triangles ,was taken as its shape .因此，看来正十二面体，由20个正三角形组成，作为它的形状是自然的选择。Air is between fire and water and so it appeared natural to assign the regular octahedron ( which consists of eight regular triangles ) to air .空气介于火和水之间，所以发现自然分配正八面（由八个正三角形组成）体给空气。The regular octahedron has the same faces ,viz .正八面体具有相同的面，三角形。the regular triangles ,as the regular tetrahedron and the regular octahedron.正三角形，对于正四面体和正八面体。Its numbers of faces is between the numbers of faces of those two .它的面的数量介于这两个的面的数量之间。From the fact that the tetrahedron ,从四面体的实事来看，octahedron and icosahedron could be decomposed into regular triangles which could be reassembled to form the other polyhedra ,八面体最终可以被分解成正三角形，也可以重新组成其它多面体，Plato concluded that fire ,air and water could also be mutually transformed ,that is ,water could be transformed by fire into air ,whereas when air loses fire in the upper atmosphere it becomes water in the form of rain or snow .柏拉图得出结论，火、空气和水也可以相互转化，即当进入空气中水可以空气的火,而当空气失去了火，在高层大气中它变成水雨或雪的形式。The last element was earth which is heavy and stable最后一个元素是土,它是重的和稳定的 ,and this was assumed to take the shape of a cube ,，composed of six squares ,它被认为是一个立方体的形状，由六个正方形组成。Since it was not possible to reduce the cube into regular triangles ,由于它不能减少立方体变成正三角形，但是只能变成正方形，but only into squares ,Plato concluded that earth could not be transformed into fire ,air or water .柏拉图得出结论，土不能转换成火、空气和水。This is discussed in Platos dialogue Timaeus .这是柏拉图的对话蒂迈欧篇中提到的。In the dodecahedron ,because ,of all the regular polyhedra ,its volume most nearly approaches that of the sphere ,Plato saw the outer shape of the universe .在十二面体中，因为在所有的正多面体，它的体积最接近它所对应的球的体积，柏拉图看它是雨中的外形。The Timaeus also contains discussion on the composition of organic and inorganic bodies and may be considered as a rudimentary treatise on chemistry .蒂迈欧篇中还包含讨论有机和无机的部分，它（蒂迈欧篇）被认为是一本最早的化学论述。At this point it should be perhaps emphasized that Plato taught that the idea ,the form ,was the truly fundamental pattern behind phenomena ,that is to say ,ideas are more fundamental than objects .在这一点上它应该也许强调，柏拉图教导说，这个想法、形式，是真正的基本模式在现象之后，即是说,想法比目标更基础。Platos description of the shapes of the four elements was perhaps the first mathematical model used in chemistry ,since regular polyhedra are mathematical objects .柏拉图描述的四种元素的形状,可能是第一次数学模型用于化学，自从正多面体是数学对象。The regularity that exists between the numbers of vertices V ,edges E and faces F ,was discovered by Euler ( 1707-1783) and is thus called the Euler theorem .这个规律存在于顶点V，边E和面F之间的数量之间，它被欧拉（1707-1783）发现，因此被称为欧拉定理。This states that :这个陈述是： V+F-E=2Which is considered by some to be the second most beautiful mathematical theorem ?哪个是被一些人认为是第二个最美丽的数学定理呢？It is of interest to speculate why the Greeks did not discover Eulers theorem .有趣的是猜测为什么希腊人没有发现的欧拉定理。Perhaps the simplest explanation is that Greek mathematics was two thousand years away from topology .也许最简单的解释是希腊数学距离拓扑学有二千年。Topology ( rubber sheet geometry ) is the part of mathematics that deals with the way objects are connected ,without regard to straightness and metric .拓扑学是用来解决连接方式的对象数学的一部分，它不考虑“比值”和度量。A generalization of the above ideas on elements was put forward by Aristotle (384-322 BC) .元素的概念一般的看法是由亚里斯多德(公元前384322 )提出的。He accepted the idea of four element ,but introduced the concept of transmutation of elements .他接受四大元素的概念，但是引入了元素的转换。Aristotle thought that the elements could be obtained by combining the pairs of opposing fundamental properties of matter .亚里斯多德认为元素可以由一对相反的基本特征的物质制成。These properties were hotness ,coldness ,moistness and dryness .这些特征是热、冷、湿和干。The combination of hotness and moistness produced air .热和湿结合产生空气。Moistness and coldness gave water and ,similarly ,coldness and dryness produced earth .湿和冷产生水，类似的，冷和干燥产生土。Aristotle added the fifth element or quintessence ,ether .亚里斯多德增加了第五种元素或精华，以太。The sky and heavenly bodies were supposedly made up of this fifth element .天空和天体可能组成了这第五种元素。Aristotle defined an element as simple body that other bodies can be decomposed into but one that is not itself capable of being divided into simpler bodies .亚里斯多德元素定义为简单的物体，其它的物体能被分解成元素，而元素本身不能被分解成更简单的物体。He classified several chemical processes ,first mentioned mercury and was familiar with the technique of distillation .他将几个化学过程分类，（他）第一次提到汞，对蒸馏技术非常熟悉。Aristotles ideas dominated science for almost two thousand years .亚里士多德的思想主宰科学界近二千年。There was another theory on the structure of matter put forward by Greek thinkers .古希腊思想家提出了物质结构的另一种理论。This was concerned with the divisibility of matter .这是涉及到不可分解的物质。The first Greek philosopher to think about this problem appears to have been Leucippus ( ca 470420 BC )from Miletus. 第一个思考这个问题的古希腊哲学家是来自米利都的留基伯 ( 约公元前470420)。He came up with the proposition that matter cannot be divided endlessly ,for in the process of dividing matter one will sooner or later come to a piece not divisible into smaller parts .他提出了物质不能被无穷尽地分解的主张，因为在物质的分解过程中，迟早会有一块不能分解成更小的部分。His pupil Democritus ( ca 460-ca 370 BC ),from Abdera ,continued to develop the ideas of Leucippus .他的学生德谟克利特（约公元前460-370），来自阿夫季拉，继续发展留基伯的主张。He named these ultimately small pieces of matter (atomos ) ,meaning indivisible ,This is the origin of our term atom.他把这个最终最小块的物质命名为原子，意思是不可分割的，这就是我们的术语原子的由来。The concept of the atom is the basis of the atomic theory of the structure of matter and the philosophy of materialism .原子的概念是原子结构的理论问题和唯物主义哲学观的基础。Most Greek philosophers ,and particularly Aristole ,did not accept the atomistic teachings of Leucippus and Democritus .大多数古希腊哲学家，尤其是亚里斯多德，没有接受留基伯和德谟克利特的原子学说。Atomism ,however ,did not die out because Epicurus ( ca 342-270 BC ) made atomism part of his philosophy ,and Epicureanism won many followers over the next few centuries. 原子论，然而，没有消逝，因为伊比鸠鲁（约公元前342-270）将原子论作为他哲学的一部分，伊比鸠鲁学说赢得了许多追随者在接下来的几个世纪。One of these was the Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius （ca 96-55 BC ),who wrote a fine didactic poem entitled De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things ) in which he expounded the atomistic teachings of Democritus and Epicurus .其中一个是罗马诗人和哲学家卢克莱修（约公元前96-55），写了一遍很好的阐述德谟克利特和伊壁鸠鲁的原子论学说说理诗名为De Rerum Natura（物性论）。Most of the works by Democritus and Epicurus are lost ,but Lucretiuss poem has survived intact and has served to convey the atomistic teachings of the Greeks to modern times .大多数的德谟克利特与伊壁鸠鲁的作品丢失了，但卢克莱修的诗歌都完好无损，并转达了古希腊人的原子学说到现代。The splitting of the atom and the advent of the atomic bomb have surely confirmed what an excellent model of reality atomistic theory was .原子的分裂和原子弹的出现已经证实了一个优秀的现实原子理论的模型是什么。The philosophy of idealism and the philosophy of materialism were opposed throughout history .纵观历史唯心主义的哲学和唯物主义哲学是对立的。From a chemical point of view the philosophy of materialism affords a basis for an understanding of the structure of compounds .从化学的角度，唯物主义哲学提供了化合物结构理解的基础。However ,the collective properties of compounds such as their smell or color taste can also be interpreted in terms of Platos ideas ,which are particularly well suited for studying the mathematical properties of chemical structures .然而，化合物共有的性质，像他们的气味或颜色味道能依据柏拉图的观点被解释，它尤其适合研究化学结构的数学特性。If we link the philosophy of materialism with experimental work in chemistry structure .如果我们将唯物主义哲学与化学结构的实验工作联系在一起。If we link the philosophy of idealism with theoretical work ,it is clear that both philosophies as well as both experiment and theory are needed to advance chemistry .如果我们将唯心主义和理论工作联系在一起，很明显,所有哲学以及所有实验和理论两方面都需要化学为前提。This is of course also true for other sciences .这当然也适用于其他科学。Alchemy is a type of chemistry that existed from about 300 BC until the second half of the seventeenth century .炼金术是一种类型化学存在于从约公元前300年到17世纪下半叶。This constitutes a less interesting period for our purposes ,since alchemists were practical people who did not care much for theories and mathematics .这就构成了一个对于我们的目的不那么有趣的时期,因为炼金术士是现实不在乎理论和数学的人。The alchemists had two main objectives :(1) to turn base metals into gold and （2）to discover the elixir of life .炼金术士们有两个主要的目标：（1）把基本金属变为黄金以及（2）发现长生不老药。The origins of alchemy can be traced back to the ancient Egyptians .炼金术的起源可以追溯到古埃及人。There was a lot of magic involved in the work of alchemists and their symbols were difficult to decipher .有很多巫术涉及到炼金师的工作，他们的符号无法辨认。However ,the coding systems used by various alchemists are really cryptograms and as such possess a mathematical basis .然而，各种炼金术士所用的编码系统是真的密码，因此拥有数学基础。It is important to stress that chemistry as a science started only in the second half of the seventeenth century when alchemy gradually transformed itself into the science now known as c