ARGUMENTS.doc

LAST LOGICAL REASONING SECTIONMANTRAS1. I will always read the questions first.2. I will slow down and do fewer arguments, and get the ones I do right.3. I will do the questions that take the least amount of time first, and leave the longer ones for later.4. If I dont understand the first sentence of an argument, I will move on to another argument I do understand.5. I will transfer my answers in groups, even bubbling in answers to questions that Im skipping.6. When five minutes are left, I will transfer answers singly and make sure I have bubbled in an answer to every question.7. I will take ten-second breathing break after every five or six arguments.WORKING ARGUMENTS: A STEP-BY-STEP PROCESSStep 1: Reading the question: Find out what should be looking for when read the argument.Step 2: Work the argument: Read the argument critically, looking for the issue that being discussed and looking also for the authors conclusion.Step 3: Stop, think and write: Identifying the issue, stating the authors point, noting the authors reasons, and coming up with any underlying assumptions. Remember to write out.Step 4: Use Progress of Elimination:1. Scope（无关信息排除法）LSAT arguments have very specific limits. The author of an arguments stays within these limits in the conclusion. So, never assume anything else. Anything else is irrelevant, which embodies:a. Anything outside the scope of the argument, which the author doesnt need to make his conclusion stick.b. Anything too general in the scope, for arguments are usually about specific things.c. Anything not mentioned in the argument.无关信息排除法在各题型中的适用：Conclusion & Inference Questions: 严格适用；Assumption Questions: 适用于肯定形式的桥梁型假设；Strengthen Questions: 有时使用同义词替换，适用较严格；Completion Questions: 适用于顺承关系的题型，难文章使用严格；Flaw Questions: 选项中出现文章信息的直接使用；或适用于抽象词所指代的文章具体信息。2. Extreme Wording（极端词排除法）For some question types (most notably Conclusion, Assumption, and Inference), extremely, absolute language tend to be wrong, and choices with extremely wording can usually be eliminated. Keep in mind, however, that an argument with extreme language can support an extreme answer choice. So, always note extreme wording anywherein the passage, the question, or the answer choice.Nice and Wishy-WashyDangerous Extrememay / mightcan / couldsomepossibleusuallysometimesat least oncefrequentlynot nevercannotat no timenothing to dowillalwaysmust allanyonlyimpossibleexactlypositivelyabsolutelyunequivocally3. Opposite（相反信息排除法）For some question type, such as Weaken, Strength, Conclusion, and Parallel-the-Reasoning, one of the answer choices will almost always be an “opposite.”4. General Issue（通用排除法）1) 对结论作用不明。2) 非事实性：i. If/ when/ as/ whenever/ whichever/ whoever后的信息文中没有。ii. Necessary后的信息文中没有。iii. 权威：authority; scientist; leader believe/ agree。iv. 大众：popular beliefs and values; most people believe/ agree.3) 比较级：i. 结论有比较级，答案也应当有同样的比较。ii. 比较对象必须保持一致，比较点可以有不同。 4) 时间不一致。ARGUMENT TECHNIQUES1. TAKING BABY STEPS: Remember the right answer will the one that takes only one small step directly from the argument. When too many steps are involved, the choice must fall.2. WHAT TO DO WHEN DOWN TO TWO:a. Quickly re-reading the argument will always help to find a flaw in one of the choices.b. The trickiest incorrect answers are usually mostly right; they contain just a word or two that make them wrong. So if an answer seems only partly right, eliminate it.3. 文章难猜A，EXCEPT猜E。 Lesson 1: CONCLUSION QUESTIONS1. 标志词：conclusion; main point; 2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：Identify the issue, point, and reasons. No assumption.3. 解题方法：Use the Why Test to assure authors main point, and then match the supposed point against the five answer choices. The closest one wins.4. NOTES:When down to two choices, use extreme wording and scope to eliminate one choice.LESSON 2: INFERENCE QUESTIONS 101. 标志词：inferred; implied; supported; drawn from; if above true, then it is also true.Sample Questions Phrasing:Which one of the following statements/conclusions must be true given the information above?Note the fact that the sample says “conclusions” instead of “conclusion”. And “conclusions” means that its an Inference question.2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：When read the argument, the only thing have to be done is get the issue. Dont care the authors point, reason, or assumptions. 不要关心文章的推导过程，尽量减少思维，承认文章正确，只抓信息。3. 解题方法：公共元素直推法1) A B: If A, then B.If only A, then B.Not A, unless B.A requires/ implies/ draws B.A depends / bases on B.A is sufficient for B.A or/otherwise B.2) B A: Only if A, then B.Must by A, in order to B.A is necessary to B.4. NOTES：1) Use scope and, especially, extreme wording to eliminate answer choices.2) When get to the answer choices, only one of the choices must be true given the information in the passage.3) Notice the inference hiding behind the term of quantity, comparison, or frequency, e.g. unlike, most-some, almost never-rarely/occasionally.4) 出现诸如if A, then B; if B, then C的推理，不可得出C存在的结论，因为前提A乃是基于假设。5) 涉及有关数字的问题，要注意比较对象的一致、相对与绝对数字的区分以及集合概念。LESSOON 3: EXPLANATION QUESTIONS 31. 标志词：explain; reason; account; provide a rationale for; reconcile the paradox / discrepancy. 2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：a) 解释结果：不要关心文章的推导过程，只需弄清楚文章所要解释的对象即可，b) 解释矛盾（Paradox Questions）：Spot the facts mentioned in the argument, and identify the apparent discrepancy or paradox between them. Essentially, the paradox will be the issue of the argument.3. 解题方法：a) 解释结果：肯定文章所要解释的对象，用常识判断各个选项是否与文章相符。b) Paradox Questions: Go to the answer choices and look for a piece of information that, when added to the argument, allows both facts from the argument to be true, and therefore to be exist.4. NOTES:1) Assume all choices to be hypothetically true.2) 解释矛盾的侧重点：a. 跟在前一事实后面的事实；b. 转折词后面的事实。LESSON 4: ASSUMPTION QUESTIONS 781. 标志词：assumimg; assumption; presuppose; additional premise; necessary for; not true unless; depend on; rely on.2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：Identify the issue, point, reason, and assumptions of the author. Use the Why Test.3. 解题方法：1) GAP & BRIDGE（桥梁型前提结论结构） A-FACT B-ASSUMPTIONPREMISE CONCLUSION标志词：since A, B; A, therefore B; A, conclude B; A, clear B; A, obviously B;A, indicate/show B; If A, then B; By A, in order to B; Plan A, to B.a. Something new was mentioned in the conclusion that wasnt mentioned anywhere else in the argument. Or the author probably “went too far” by making a conclusion from not enough information. The gap between the conclusion and the premises will help to spot the assumption. Look for the gap and think how to bridge it. Most of the gaps that exist are between the conclusion and one of the premises, but sometimes a gap will exist between two premises.b. Negating Assumption Choices（取非削弱）：One of the most important things to remember about any assumption is the fact that, when making an argument, the assumption must be necessary for the conclusion to be true. So heres the technique: To see if any answer choice on Assumption questions is really necessary (and therefore the right answer), make that statement false. Simply negate the language of the choice, and see if the argument falls apart in the process.2) CHOICES WITH NOT + WEAKENa. Causal Assumption（因果结构） A-FACT B-ASSUMPTIONEFFECT CAUSE标志词：In the arguments: A is due to B; A is attributing to B; A is result of B; blame B on/for A; B is responsible for A; credit A to B. 使用因果引导词或者conclude来联结事实与推测。In the questions: explanation; interpretation; hypothesis. 或者用conclude之类的词引导。This means making an assumption where exist an observed effect and a possible cause for that effect, and then linking the two by saying that the possible cause was the cause. The causal assumption is actually implying that:i. A caused B.ii. Nothing else besides A caused B (there are no alternate causes).iii. AB.WEAKEN: i. A B（异因同果）ii. A B（同因异果）b. Statistical AssumptionThis assume that a given statistic or sample proves a conclusion, or that an individual is representative of a group.WEAKEN:a. A fact that in someway shows the sample to be unrepresentative.b. 或者以他因解释事实(observed effect)，即AB（异因同果）。c. Analogy Assumption This assumes that a given group, idea, or action is logically similar to another group, idea, or action.WEAKEN: A fact that in someway shows that the two arent comparable at all.4. NOTES:桥梁型假设是基于原文结论的必要条件，由于无关信息无法从原文结论中直接推出，必然不是必要条件，因此可以使用无关信息排除法。NOT+WEAKEN的假设（esp. Causal Assumption）目的在于排除他因假设，必然使用原文未出现的信息，故不可通过无关信息排除。LESSON 5: WEAKEN QUESTIONS 121. 标志词：V. weaken; cast doubt on; argue against; damage; counter; challenge; refute; jeopardize; undermine; drawback; call into question.N. flaw; criticism; error; weakness.2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：1) Identify the issue, point, and reasons. Use the Why Test to assure authors main point.2) The answer to a Weaken question will never come out and say the opposite of what the conclusion of the argument saidits going to be a bit more subtle than that. It will in some way call into question the information or the assumption the author used to get to his conclusion. Therefore, look for where the author made too big a leap in logic, and find out the authors underlying assumption.3. 解题方法：1) WEAKEN BASED ON PREMISE-CONCLUSION（前提结论结构）a. BRIDGE-BREAK（断桥型）i. Model: Argument: If A, (B), then C.Weaken: B doesnt exist.ii. Its like knocking down building by sawing off a few key beams, as opposed to blowing it up with half a ton of C-4 explosive.针对桥梁型假设所作之削弱，关键在于找出作者所略而不谈的论证步骤与隐而未发的前提假设，并直接反对之。釜底抽薪，直击要害。iii. 由于该削弱型乃基于桥梁型假设，因此可以用无关信息排除法获得。尤其是在问题中出现名词型削弱词（e.g. flaw; criticism; error; weakness），其选项必为断桥型削弱。b. ANTI-FACT-PREMISE（他因型）i. Model:Argument: A B Weaken: C Bii. 该削弱型同样是针对前提结论结构的ARGUMENT，以原文中并未出现的事实前提C，直接反对结论B（前提A为真，结论B为假，则原命题AB为假）。不涉及原文的假设。不可通过无关信息排除。另辟蹊径，暗度陈仓。2) WEAKEN BASED ON TRI- ASSUMPTIONS Referred to 2.3 3) WHAT IF I CANNOT FIND THE ASSUMPTIONLook at the conclusion and ask, “Why not?” the correct answer to a Weaken question will always provides an answer. It gives a reasona direct reasonto believe that the conclusion is not true.4. NOTES:1) Assume all choices to be hypothetically true.2) Unless the argument is about peoples opinions of one thing or another, popular belief or appealing to authority, even the opinions of supposed “experts” dont weaken argumentfacts that destroy the arguers chain of assumption weaken arguments. LESSON 6: STRENGTHEN QUESTIONS 81. 标志词：support; strengthen; justify; conclusion can be draw if it were true that. 2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：1) Identify the issue, point, reason, and assumptions of the author. Use the Why Test to assure authors main point.2) Read critically, looking for where the author made too big a leap in logic.Referred to 3.23. 解题方法：1) STRENTHEN BASED ON PREMISE-CONCLUSION（前提结论结构）a. BRIDGE-BUILD（桥梁型）i. Model: Argument: If A, (B), then C.Strengthen: B does exist.ii. 与削弱题类似，桥梁型加强题也是基于作者一定程度上的假设。找出隐含的假设条件，继而在选项中直接肯定假设的正确性或提高其正确的概率。b. 事实型加强：i. Model: Argument: A B Strengthen: C Bii. 用选项直接加强结论，无须理会作者的假设，故不可通过无关信息排除。This means that the answer will almost function like an additional information and evidence, like another answer to the question Why? Why should I believe that the conclusion is true?2) WEAKEN BASED ON CAUSAL ASSUMPTION（因果结构）i. Model: Argument: A BStrengthen: A B（异因异果）ii. 因为逆否命题等价于原命题，用事实证明逆否命题成立，则证明原命题为真。3) WEAKEN BASED ON STATISTIC ASSUMPTION STRENTHEN: Provide a fact that shows how the sample is representative.4) WEAKEN BASED ON ANALOGY ASSUMPTION STRENTHEN: Shoe why the two are similar to each other.4. NOTES:1) Assume all choices to be hypothetically true.2) Unless the argument is about peoples opinions of one thing or another, popular belief or appealing to authority, even the opinions of supposed “experts” dont strengthen argumentfacts that destroy the arguers chain of assumption strengthen arguments.3) 加强选项既不须是文章结论的充分条件，亦不必是其必要条件。只需维持或提高原命题推理的合理性，减少被削弱的可能性即可。LESSON 7: EVALUATION QUESTIONS1. 标志词：evaluate; appraisal; determine.2. 找到合适的选项进行回答。3. 评价将根据回答的不同起到加强或削弱的作用，因此可以等同于削弱或加强题处理。LESSON 8: PRINCIPLE QUESTIONS1. Sample Question Phrasings:a. Which of the following examples conforms to the principle given in the argument above?b. Which one of the following principles justifies the actions taken by Mia in the argument above?2. 解题方法：1) Basically, Principle questions are matching questions. Either you will be given a principle in the argument and then asked to match it with one of five possible examples of the principle from the answer choices, or you will be given an example in the argument and then given five potential principles in the answer choices and be asked to match one of those with the example. 2) Make sure to be clear in which direction the argument is flowingare they giving you five principles in the answer choice, or are they giving you five examples of a principle stated in the argument?3) Once youre sure, come up with either your own example or your own principle and then match that against the answer choicesif part of the answer choice doesnt match, throw it out.LESSON 9: REASONGING AND FLAW QUESTIONS 21. 标志词：1) Reasoning Question: describe how; technique; method; way; principle; strategy; based on.2) Flaw Questions: flaw; questionable technique.2. 读文章方式（Work the argument）：Read the argument slowly enough to figure out how the author got from point A to point B. Also it is useful to find the conclusion and premises; it help to discern the reasoning. However, though it is usually the key to cracking Flaw questions, finding the assumption wont be nearly as useful in Reasoning questions. 3. 解题方法：1) DETERMINE THE TYPE OF QUESTIONThe answer to Reason question will fall into one of two categories: general answers that dont actually mentioned the subject matter of the argument（用抽象词指代文中的具体概念）, and specific answers that do address the subject matter of the argument. Occasionally, the answer choices will be a mix of both.2) 用自己的语言描述文章论证方法。常出现的论证选项有：a. Valid Reasoning Choices:类比（analogy）；他因；断桥；逆否命题（contra positive）b. Flaw Reasoning Choices:逆命题（reverse）；否命题（negate）；循环论证（assume the truth of the position to be proved; circle reasoning）；语义模糊（use the word ambiguously）；反对前提；人身攻击；因果联系（attribute an unknown cause to a known effect）；由样本推导一般；由过去推导将来；诉诸权威或大众；（appeal to popular beliefs and values/authorities）3) PREOCESS OF ELIMINATIONLook through the answers very slowly, match each word or phrase from the answer choices and ask, Does this correspond to anything that actually occurred in the argument? Most of the time, the