外文翻译--最新机械制造中的人机交互的应用 中文版

ORIGINAL ARTICLEP. OborskiMan-machine interactions in advanced manufacturing systemsReceived: 16 July 2002 / Accepted: 12 September 2002/Published online: 5 December 2003C211 Springer-Verlag London Limited 2003Abstract Continued development of modern machinesand production equipment, supported by advancedcontrol systems and based on recent achievements incomputer and software technology, is necessary to fulfilclient requirements. A significant number of manufac-turing systems are able to work automatically with alimited contribution from employees. However, even inadvanced manufacturing systems, one of the mostimportant factors is still the human being. Usuallyoverall system performance depends on human deci-sions, and the significance of such decisions is higherthan it was in the past because of more complex andcostly production systems. In such a situation, the e-cient utilisation of manufacturing equipment via properman-machine interaction is necessary. The paper dealswith problems in man machine interactions and with anattempt to model human behaviour. The interactionmedia are explained and a short survey of research inthis area is provided. The aim of the paper is to classifyknowledge regarding man-machine interactions.Keywords Manufacturing systems Man-machineinteraction Human factor Computer integratedproduction Control systems1 IntroductionThe competitiveness and eective utilisation of machinesand manufacturing systems that are becoming more andmore computerised can be achieved by putting moreemphasis on the human factor. Proper cooperation be-tween humans and advanced intelligent devices forsupporting production such as process and machinemonitoring will become an important part of productionin the near future. In designing control systems and newmachines, advantages and disadvantages of using hu-man operators must be taken into account. Better workorganisation should ensure high motivation, increasedcompetency, stability of personnel and human workeciency.It seems obvious that a new approach to the processof man-machine interaction should be developed thatshould be based on the latest achievements in softwareengineering, possibilities regarding new unconventionalhardware systems and a deep knowledge of humanbehaviour. Better utilisation of humans and modernmanufacturing systems via proper man-machine inter-action design should be an aim of such multidisciplinaryresearch.2 Interaction of human software systemsManufacturing must be considered discrete production.The number and interrelations of control parametersand constraints mean that discrete production can betreated as a complex system. The main features of suchsystems are 1: Large number of components Multiplicity of components types Highly coupled components Presence of disturbancesThe consequence of the complexity of present man-ufacturing systems is that full automation of controlfunctions is impossible without the loss of flexibility andthe occurrence of malfunctions. High performance,product quality, and system flexibility are required onthe one hand and complex problem solving, and expe-rience-based learning are needed on the other hand,which require close cooperation between informationtechnology and human factors. In order to be eective,such cooperation must take both human and informa-tion system features into account to be eective.Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2004) 23: 227232DOI 10.1007/s00170-003-1574-5P. OborskiInstitute of Manufacturing Technology,Warsaw University of Technology,ul. Narbutta 86, 02-524 Warsaw, PolandE-mail: P.O.plHuman and information system cooperation isstrongly dependent on the behaviour of both man andcomputer system. Human operators have unique naturalabilities that determine their role in manufacturing. Themost important are: experience-based self learning,adaptation to new situations, high ability for manualmanipulation, very ecient sense feedback (eyesight,hearing, etc.), possibility of innovative solution appli-cation, foreseeing controlled system behaviour based oncurrent observations, and ability to react to unforeseensituations. Those features produce very importantadvantages for man on both the machine control andmanagement levels.The most important drawbacks of human beings are:limited amount of information can be processed simul-taneously, quickly changing processes are dicult orimpossible to control, no deterministic behaviour, in-creased error if tasks change too often or are monoto-nous. Human eciency decreases when the aim of thework is not understood or when he/she can not makedecisions about it 3.Some of these drawbacks can be eliminated or theirinfluence on the manufacturing process can be limitedwith proper work organisation. An operator shouldknow the aim of his work and should be able to at leastmake limited decisions about his work place. In regardto software system cooperation a graphical interfaceshould be designed that is both useful and easy tooperate for a particular operator or groups of operators4. Computer applications and graphical interfaces,however, are very often designed by programmers whodo not know the specifics of a particular workplace/human computer system cooperation issue 5.When software systems are built, too often the mainstress is put on the preparation of information ratherthan on its presentation. Computer system operators arevery often seen as an extended computer, able tocalculate, understand and synthesise large amounts ofdata, which they cannot do 1. A significant decrease ineciency and the opinion that advanced software sys-tems are not as useful in production as they could be arethe result of such a situation 6.Present computer information systems have very highspeed and processor capacity, high accuracy, and theability to store and process a large amount of data. Themain drawbacks of information systems are: workaccording to rigid algorithms and lack of innovativereactions and real intelligence, which is defined as skil-fulness in new algorithm creation. An importantrequirement in the case of human cooperation is thenecessity for precise task definition and the necessity foraccurate data input.Human-computer system cooperation is based on theintegration of two systems with completely dierentfeatures 7. On one side is an intelligent human, who cantake intuitive actions, solve diverse problems and learnby experience. On the other side is the informationsystem that can process a large amount of data in a shorttime and that has detailed information and a short re-sponse time. Such integration can be dicult, but itpresents the possibility of complementary cooperation inthe case of appropriate computer system design. Theimpact of human behaviour on computer system struc-ture is shown in Table 1.3 Human-machine interactionNowadays most machines used in manufacturing havespecial control systems. Such a system can control ma-chine functions. The control systems can be uncompli-cated, based on simple programmable logical control(PLC) or more complicated, based on advanced multi-level hierarchical control models 8. Such systems can beresponsible for the control and supervision of advancedmachines and processes. However, all kinds of machinecontrol systems have to be supervised by a humanoperator that is necessary for complex problems solving,e.g. in case of malfunctions or break down 3.Machine operators may cooperate with the machineor process both inside and outside the system control.This matter was discussed by Stahre and an interactionmodel was proposed by Sheridan 9.The model identifies six kinds of interactions betweenthe human operator, computerised control system andthe controlled machine (Fig.1):1. Operator orders the process indirectly through thecomputer systemTable 1 Influence of humancharacteristic on informationsystems (based on 2)Human characteristic Constraint on IT-systemsDicult work with much detailed data Filter data and represent aggregateddata and chartsLow communicationbandwidth, limiting the transferof information between IT system and humanAllow for most optimal user-interface,using new technology forinput and output of dataHigh context switch when goingfrom one task to anotherDo not demand short, diversetasks of the human workersMotivation problem when autonomyis too much restrictedAllow for some decision freedomto human workersMaking mistakes, forgetting input the data Check for data consistencySlow response time to events If possible, get operatorC213s attention earlyLow predictability of operationtimes for manual tasksTake into account, if possible,based upon historical information2282. Operator receives the process status indirectly3. Operator asks for or receives information from thecomputer4. Process asks for or receives information from thecomputer5. Operator intervenes directly into the process6. Operator observes the process through his own senseIn the above model interactions 14 are controlled bythe computer system, i.e., the system designer has fore-seen them. They should be appropriate for the controlsystem and for the operatorC213s requirements. The mostdicult matters for the control system are direct oper-ator interactions into the controlled system or machine(interactions (5) and (6). Such interactions usually occurin the case of incorrect behaviour of the machine orprocess, when human intervention is necessary.Man-machine interaction can be realised in dierentways, also outside of the control systems. Properly de-signed machine control systems should not only allowfor interactions in predictable situations, but should alsobe capable of dealing with unpredictable situations, e.g.direct human intervention into the controlled machineor process. This is especially important in automatedmachines and monitored machining processes 10.4 The model of human operatorManufacturing system designers usually focus theirattention on proper material and information process-ing, but do not appreciate enough the influence of hu-man behaviour on system performance. As a result ofthis, very often the system does not work properly due toman-machine cooperation problems. Some research hasbeen done in the past in this direction, however mostwas focused on ergonomic or psychological problems11, 12, 13.The elaboration of a mathematical model to de-scribe human behaviour in a manufacturing system isvery important. Based on such a model, the develop-ment of simulation software as a support for designersof manufacturing systems or components would bepossible. However, the problem of human behaviourmodelling is very dicult. Human behaviour is stronglynon-deterministic. As a result, equations describinghuman behaviour can not model a man or womanexactly. In this paper, an approach to the descriptionof such problem is made； however the aim of thedescription is to point out some important relationshipsbetween factors describing humans rather than to buildan exact mathematical model.Factors characterising human control work in a sys-tem are listed below. These factors should be minimised.s control delaycan be characterised as the timebetween the appearance of an abnormal situationand returning the system to the required state: s0.t human reaction timedescribes the operatorC213s be-haviour, can be characterised as the time between theappearance of an abnormal situation and a controldecision made by the operator: t0.g system inertiatime between control decision andcontrol action and reaching the proper state by thesystem: g0.n human decision correctness: n0, n C221 (is increasing)together with increasing the correctness of decisionmadea problem difficulty: a0, a C221 with the increase of theproblem solving difficultyb human tiredness: b0, b C221 with increasing operatortirednessv fears for bad decision taking: v0, v C221 withincreasing fear of making a bad decisiond human experience: d0, d C221 with increasing opera-tor experienceC15 human involvement: C150, C15 C221 with increasing oper-ator involvement in the worku problem understanding: u0, u C221 with increasingproblem understandingm education: m0, m C221 with increasing education levelj friendliness of control system j0, j C221 when systemis more user friendlyc work conditions: c0, c C221 with increasing the de-crease in working conditionsl work motivation: l0, l C221 with increasing operatormotivation to workt work load: t0, t C221 with increasing metal or manualhuman work loadh problem typicality: h0, h C221 when problem is nottypicalw responsibility: w0, w C221 increasing when operatorworks conscientiouslyk company goals understanding: k0, k C221 withincreasing comprehension and approval of com-pany goalsp working environment: p0, p C221 with increasingquality of the working environmentq gratification: q0, q C221 with gratification of growingacceptancer additional motivation factors (for example: careeropportunity, training, etc.): r0, r C221 with increasingof motivation factorsT Working time for a given or similar situationTdworking time on a given dayFig. 1 Man-machine communication model (based on 9)229R kind of workW operator ageO personality.Afterdefiningthemostimportanthumanfeatures,thegeneral formulae for modelling the relationships betweenthe factors describing human behaviour can be given:Control decision delay:s s gHuman reaction time:t a b v hd e / c n jDecision quality:n d e / l w h ja c t v bExperience:d fT； e； c； l8O； 8W； 8R；Involvement in work:e f l； c； t8O； 8W； 8R；Human tiredness:b fTd； c；t；R；W；eMotivation:l f k；p；W；t；q；rReaction time of control system supported by humandecision:Tc fCh CpC0C1where:Chhuman factors described aboveChfactor that are not dependent on human behaviour(for example: user friendliness of system control,control system reaction time, etc.).The aim of the proposed model is to point out themost important features of human behaviour and toshow the relationships between them. Special tests mustbe the next research step. The result of the tests shouldallow a more detailed model of a man to be created byelaborating the weights of particular factors. The modelof human behaviour could then be used by manufac-turing systems or its component designers and also bymanagers responsible for work organisation.5 Interaction mediaThe interaction process between people and machines orinformation systems in manufacturing can be realised bydierent types of media 14. Usually, communicationtakes place in two directions: from operator to machineand from machine to operator. From the machine orsystem point of view, the interaction from human tomachine is an input, and communication in the oppositedirection is an output (Fig. 2).The most common communication approach is theuse of conventional computer input/output devices. In-put is usually based on control of human body move-ments. The most common of these is tactile control offinger and hand movements. However, it is also possibleto monitor movements of other parts of body such as:head and eyes, legs, etc. Input to the system can also bebased on voice commands.System output is usually realised using vision as atransmission medium, but the use of audio systems isalso popular. Other media, such as force or temperaturesignals and tactile feedback can also be used in specialmachines.Research in the field of man-machine interaction fo-cuses on the development of media that enable the bestinformation exchange. Communication media suited tothe needs of a particular process should not involve theoperator in too much information exchange. The oper-ator should be focused on solving the problemsappearing in the controlled system, not on communi-cating with the system.Computer terminals are the most popular input andoutput devices for advanced man-machine interactions.These usually include a conventional keyboard, mouse,tracking-ball, or computer pens. Research carried out tomodify those devices was presented by Agah 14. Themost promising research for manufacturing systems, isfocused on elaboration of shoulder computers and inputdevices supported by voice communication. Solutionsfor control and teaching manufacturing robots likespace-balls and three-dimensional joysticks also appearto be very promising.The most popular output devices for control systemsare visual displays. They can be used for the presenta-tion of data and images. Data and images from both thereal and the virtual world can be presented on thesevisual displays. Real world data and images are usuallypresented on the screens of machine control systems andsupervisory manufacturing management systems. Re-search has shown that several windows displaying dif-ferent data can be open on the one screen at the sameFig. 2 Man-machine interaction media230time 15, however the data should be presented in asimple and easily comprehensible way. Images can makedata understanding easier. This allows also for tele-monitoring, which is very useful in the case of auto-mated manufacturing systems or distributed production.Presentation of virtual data and images that are resultfrom various simulations may be very helpful for oper-ators. Such a solution can be applied for establishing thecorrectness of a new manufacturing process, or NC androbot control programs. The visual presentation ofsimulation results is very often used in the case of sim-ulation of whole manufacturing systems for optimisingsystem load and production schedule 16. The latestresearch in this field is focused on the elaboration of athree-dimensional visual presentation of the virtualenvironment, head-mounted displays and stero-graphicsvideo presentation for operator control stations 14.For machine-operator communication, various typesof audio displays are often used. Real or virtual soundsgenerated by the computer are used to present data in aneasy-to-understand audio format.Operator-machine communication can also be sup-ported by voice command systems. Such systems canrecognise human speech and sometimes are capable ofgaining additional information from the human voice.Very often they allow for operation time reduction dueto faster communication in comparison with traditionalcomputer communication devices. They can be used indialog management systems and virtual reality systems,but on the shop floor there could be diculties due tothe noisy environment.Other communication media that could be imple-mented in human-machine information exchange are:force (communication from operator to system), forcefeedback (communication from system to operator),tactile,temperature,andtemperaturefeedback.Force,asa communication medium can be used in robot controland teaching, but it appears that other types of data canonly be used in very specific manufacturing applications.6 Recent research on human-machine interactionsThe application of the advanced human-systems inter-actions covers a wide range of tasks. The aim of thissection is to give a short review of research that is fo-cused on interaction problems in manufacturing. Forthose who need more general information, sees AgarC213scomplex taxonomy of research on human interactionswith intelligent systems 14.Most papers that touch on the problem of human-system cooperation describe particular problem solving,however, some grouping of the research can be done.Human-machine interactions problems in advancedmanufacturing were discussed by Stahre 9. Udo did ananalysis of data collected from almost one hundredUnited States manufacturing companies 17 to investi-gate the association between human factors and thesuccess of advanced manufacturing systems.The problem of the design of human-machine inter-faces for cooperative supervision and control by severalusers was discussed by Johannsen 18. He also touchedon the problem of knowledge-based interface design 4.Fuchs described the design of human-machine interfacesto match the userC213s mental model 15. Development ofan analysis support system for man-machine systemdesign based on simulation and allowing for its evalua-tion from the various viewpoints of a human operatorwas explained by Yoshikawa 12.The problem of integration of a responsive discretemanagement system with a human operator in discreteproduction was presented by Trentesaux 1. Hepointed out some ways to integrate human operationand new designs (multi-agent architecture, multi-crite-ria and distributed decision support, advanced display)to support complex manufacturing systems. Barthele-my discussed the human factor in management area.He emphasised the role of human factors in deci-sion support systems and the related assisting toolsthat can be used in the field of operational research19.General problems of human error modelling weredescribed by Johnson 20. The paper does not directlyfocused on human errors in a particular industry,however it can be useful for the analysis of decisionquality in manufacturing. For a benchmarking re-search of the error modelling and human machineinteraction problem, consult a paper describing anintegrated simulation for the analysis of pilot-aero-plane interactions 13.The man-machine interaction problem from theergonomic point of view was investigated by Jung 11.A man-machine interface model was developed in whichvisibility and reach tests were embodied. The modelaimed to be a support for various machine designers.Some papers describe planning problems such asoptimal operator assignment and cell loading in labour-intensive manufacturing cells 21.For those who are interested in intelligent systemsapplication in advanced manufacturing systems, a re-view of developments and future prospects for intelligentsystems in manufacturing can be recommended 22. Thereview also deals with human aspects of intelligentmanufacturing systems.7 ConclusionsThe proper cooperation between human and informa-tion/control systems supported by artificial intelligencecan significantly improve overall production perfor-mance in manufacturing systems. In advanced manu-facturing systems, human factors play an even moreimportant role than in the past, despite predictions fromthe seventies that stated that operators would no longerbe needed in fully automated production. However, noteveryone responsible for system and machine interfacedesign appreciates the significance of the human opera-231tor. Very often the information systems interfaces aredesigned by programmers who do not understand theproblems that come with man-machine interaction. Suchan attitude makes optimal utilisation of the humanoperator impossible. Poor design of the interactionprocess too often results in a lower than expectedmanufacturing system performance.The most important factors of man-machine inter-action in advanced manufacturing systems have beenpointed in the paper. An attempt to propose a method ofhuman modelling, decision quality and a description ofman-machine interaction was provided, along with adescription of the socio-technical design concept, whichcan be very useful in design the interactions in social andtechnical systems.In advanced manufacturing systems significantemphasis should be placed on the problem of human-machine and human-computer systems cooperation.The aim of this paper is to describe the most importantissues in this field.References1. Trentesaux D, Moray N, Tahon C (1998) Integration of thehuman operator into responsive discrete production manage-ment systems. Eur J Oper 109:3423612. Wyns J (1999) Reference architecture for holonic manufactur-ing systemsthe key to support evolution and reconfiguration.PhD thesis, KU Leuven, Belgium3. Mikler J, Hadeby H, Kjellberg A, Sohlenius G (1999) Towardsprofitable persistent manufacturing. Human factors in over-coming disturbances in production systems. Int J Adv M15:7497564. Johannsen G (1995) Knowledge-based design of human-machine interfaces. Con Eng Pr