英语语言学.doc

英语语言学一、语言的特点和功能（Features and Functions of Language）语言：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 1. Features of Language （言的特点）1) Productivity: language users can understand and create unlimited number of sentences with linguistic element. This is a result of the dual structures of every language.多产性，即语言的使用者可以理解并创造无限数量的句子。2) Duality: Language is a system of two structures, ie., the structure of sounds and structure of meaning.二重性，指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。3) Arbitrariness: the concepts represented by language and their corresponding audio symbols are in an arbitrary relationship. 任意性，即语言所表达的概念与其相对应的声音符号间的关系是任意的。4) Displacement: We can use language to describe things that are not present, such as something in the past, the future, or things that does not even exist in reality, such as E.T.移位性，指我们用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西，比如外星人5) Cultural transmission: Though endowed with the physiological basis for mastering a language, the human being is not inborn with the capability of language and has to be placed in a specific cultural environment so as to grasp a language. 文化传递性， 指语言是一种传递文化的方式6) Interchangeability:可交换性，即同一个语言共同体内的成员可以传递、接收信息。7) Reflexivity:自反性，指人类的语言可以被用来描述语言本身，即“元语言”。2. Functions of Language语言的功能1) Informative: This is the main function of language. When people use language to communicate with each other their experience in the real world, record or describe the “content” of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.信息功能，即语言可以用来传递信息，在功能语言学中称之为达意功能（ideational function）.2) Interpersonal: People establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function人际功能，指人们通过语言来建立、维持其社会地位。3) Performative: This is a function where by the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.施为功能，指人们通过语来实现让他人完成某个人物的功能。此概念来自Austin和Searle，属于语用学（Pragmatics）的范畴。4) Emotive: 感情功能，指语言可以改变听众的感情。5) Phatic communion: This is function realized by those “Phatic language”, aiming at establishing a harmonious and intimate climate among people. 交感性谈话，指人们使用特定的表达方式，如“你好”等来维持相互间的关系。6) Recreational：This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for languages sake, i.e., not using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and childish babbles.娱乐功能，指人们可以使用语言进行娱乐活动，如唱歌等。7) Metalingual：People may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. 元语言功能，指人类可以使用语言来谈论、改变语言本身。二、Branches of Linguistics （语言学的主要分支）语言学就是对语言的科学研究。1. Internal Branches: Intra- disciplinary divisions （内部分支）1) phonetics( 语音学): the study of speech sounds (研究语音 );2) Phonology (音系学音位学): the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables （研究音和音节的结构、分布于和序列）;3) Morphology (形态学): the study of the minimal units of meaningmorphemes and word-formation processes, that is , the internal organization of words (研究意义的最小单位语素合成词过程，即单词的内部构造 );4) Syntax (句法学): the study of principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences (研究造句的规则);5) Semantics (语义学): the study of how meaning is encoded in a language (研究意义如何在语言中编码);6) Pragmatics (语用学) : the study of meaning in context (研究语境中的意义2. External Branches: inter- disciplinary divisions (外部分支：跨学科分支即宏观语言学分支)1) Psycholinguistics (心理语言学): to study the interrelation of language and mind;2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学): to study the characteristics of Language varieties, language functions and speakers as the three interact and change within a speech community;3) Anthropological Linguistics (人类语言学): to study the emergence of language and the divergence of language over thousands of years;4) Computational Linguistics (计算机语言学): to study the use of computers to process or produce human language.三、Phonetics语音学1. Sub-branches of Phonetics(语音学分支)1) Articulatory Phonetics (发音语音学): the production of speech sounds;2) Acoustic phonetics(声学语音学): the physical properties of speech sounds;3) Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学): the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.2Groups of speech sounds语音分类Consonants(辅音)Vowels（元音）四、Phonology音位学音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音，它是音位学研究的基础；新位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音1Phonemes and Allophones(音位和音位变体)1) Phoneme: a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature (在某一语言中具有区别意义的最小语音单位).2) Allophones: the variants of a phoneme.没有区分表意单位作用的音段较音位变体。3) Contrastive distribution (对立分布): the typical to be found in Minima Pairs (最小语音对). A Minimal Pair refers to two words which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one Phoneme) and which also differ in meaning, for example, bear and pear.如pin和pen4) Complementary distribution (互补分布): allophones that are not found in the same position (从不出现在相同环境中的音位变体, 入送气的p(peak)决不会出现在s之后，而不送气的p(speak)也决不会出现在词首):5）Free variation (自由变体): If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation (同一个词由于某种原因发成了两个音，这种差异可能来自方言或者习惯等).2. Suprasegmental Features(超音段特征)The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.对于大于音段的语音单位（如音阶、单词和句子）的语音特征进行的研究成为超音段音位学，超音段特征包括重音（stress),音长（length)，音高（Pitch)和此三者共同作用的结果语调（Intonation）五、Morphology形态学1Morpheme(词素)1）Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language (最小的有意义的语言单位).2) Free Morphemes(自由语素) and Bound Morphemes(粘着语素)l Morphemes constituting words by themselves are called free morphemes. They are roots (词根) of words.l Morphemes always attached to free morphemes to form new words are called bound morphemes. They are affixes (词缀) of words, which can be further divided into Inflectional Affixes (曲折词缀) and Derivational Affixes (派生词缀).l Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.l Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.2. Word Formation(词的形成)1） Derivation (派生): length +enlengthen2） Compounding (复合): book + shelfbookshelf3） Lexical change proper (特有的词汇变化)l Invention(新创词语): nylonl Blending (混成词): transfer + resistertransistorl Abbreviation(缩写词): abbreviationad.l Acronym(首字母缩写词): World Trade Organization WTOl Back-formation(逆构词法): editoreditl Borrowing (外来词): Kung-fu4） Semantic change (语义变化)l Broadening(词义扩大): task tax imposeda piece of workl Narrowing (词义缩小):deer beasta particular kind of animall Meaning shift(词义转移): bead prayerthe prayer beadsmall, Ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood六、Syntax句法学主要研究句子结构以及词、词组和短语组成句子规则1. Traditional Grammar (传统语法)1) In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.2) sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects, objects, verbs (predicates), predicative3) nouns: number, case, gender4) verbs: tense, aspect, voice5) agreement in number /person /gender2. Structural Grammar(结构主义语法)1) it was founded by Saussure, who distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)2) Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.3) Key concepts: Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations (组合关系和聚合关系), Structure and System(结构与系统), Immediate constituents(直接成分), Endocentric and Exocentric constructions(向心结构与离心结构).3. Transformational-Generative(TG) Grammar (转化生成语法)1) It was founded by Noam Chomsky, who believes that language is somewhat innateThe Innateness Hypothesis (天赋假说) and that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (语言习得机制), which consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker(假设标记), linguistic universal (语言普遍性) and an evaluation procedure (评估程序).2) Chomsky distinguishes a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situation as Competence (语言能力) and Performance (语言运用). TG Grammar takes the ideal speakers linguistic competence as the object of study.3) The Grammar has five stages of development: the Classical Theory, the Standard Theory, the Extended Standard Theory, the Revised Extended Standard Theory and the Minimalist program.4. Systematic-Functional Grammar （系统功能与法)1) It was founded by M.A.K. Halliday and takes actual uses of language as the object of study.2) The Grammar has two components: Systematic Grammar and Functional Grammar.2) Key concepts: Them and Rheme (主位和述位), Communicative Dynamism(交际动力), the three meta-functions of languageIdeational function (达意功能), Interpersonal function (交际功能) and Textual function (文本功能)SummarySchoolsRepresentativesTheories and Concepts1. SaussureLanguage is a system of signs.Structural Grammar2. ChomskyTransformational-Generative Grammar3. The Prague School/Synchronic linguistic studyLanguage is functionalFunctional Sentence Perspective (FSP)Theme and Rheme4. The London SchoolFirth HallidayThe object of linguistics is language in actual use.Systematic-Functional Grammar5. American StructuralismBoas and Sapir BloomfieldSapir-Whorf HypothesisBehaviourism in Linguistics七、Semantics语义学Definition of Meaning1) G.-Leech and his 7 types of meaning: Conceptual meaning (概念意义), Connotative meaning (内含意义), Social meaning (社会意义), Affective meaning (情感意义), Reflected meaning (反意义), Collocative meaning (搭配意义), Thematic meaning (主题意义).2) The conceptual view (概念主义观点): semantic triangle (语义三角) by Ogden and RichardsSymbol or Form, Referent, and Thought or Reference.3) Contextualism (语境主义): to base meaning on context; a representative of the approach was J.R.Firth.4) Behaviorism(行为主义): the meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer; a supporter of the approach was Bloomfield, who was a principle representative of American Structuralism(美国结构主义).5) Key Concepts: Lexical sense relations (词汇含意关系): Synonymy (同义关系), Polysemy (一词多义);Homonymy (同音或同形异议关系): Hyponymy (上下义关系), Antonymy(反义关系).Sentential sense relations (语句含义关系): Tautology (同义反复句), Contradiction (自相矛盾句), Inconsistency (矛盾关系)，Synonymousness (同义关系), Entailment (衍推关系), Presuppostion (预设关系), semantically anomalousness(语义反常句).八、Pragmatics语用学1. Speech Act