跨文化较完整版.doc

【DEFINITION】Intercultural communicationThere are three kinds of things you need to learn if you want to be able to communicate effectively with Westerners. First, you need to learn a foreign language, usually English. Second, you should learn as much as possible about Western cultures. However, studying English language and Western culture is not enough. You should also learn something about what happens when people from different cultures try to communicate with each other in other words, intercultural communication.CultureCulture is a learned pattern of behavior, and is a way in which a person lives his life. It is an integral part of every society, and creates a feeling of belonging and togetherness among the people of that society. Culture encompasses various aspects of communication, attitude, etiquette, beliefs, values, customs, norms, food, art, jewelry, clothing styles, etc. Every society has a different culture, which gives it an identity and uniquenessPeople from different cultures live in different regions, have different jobs, have different ethnic backgrounds, and so forth.StereotypesIt is a derogatory word. It means that image, idea, character that has become fixed or standardized in a conventional form without individuality and is therefore false and shallow. Stereotypes may have a basis in fact, but they are too broad and shallow, and they give us the mistaken idea that a peoples culture can be summed up easily in a few short, simple statements. Stereotypes are also dangerous because they may trick us into believing that knowing a few stereotypes is the same thing as understanding another culture.InterpretationInterpretation is a very important aspect of intercultural communication. It is the process of deciding what foreigners words and actions mean and why they do what they do. Interpretation is a part of all communication- even the most simple conversations.IndividualistIndividualist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as individuals and emphasize the needs of individuals. In general, Western culture tends to be individualist. They view themselves as independent of collectives; are primarily motivated by their own preferences, needs, rights, and the contacts they have established with others; give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others; and emphasize rational analyses of the advantages and disadvantages to associating with others.CollectivistCollectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups (families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Most Asian cultures, including Chinas, tend to be collectivist. People see themselves as parts of one or more collectives; are primarily motivated by the norms of, and duties imposed by, those collectives; are willing to give priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals; and emphasize their connectedness to members of these cultures.HierarchyEvery society has hierarchy to some degree. In other words, some people have higher rank and more power than others, perhaps because they are older, stronger, wealthier, or have some kind of official position. On the other hand, however, most modern societies also believe that equality is a virtue, at least to some extent. So each culture needs to find its own balance between hierarchy and equality. 1) Westerners generally have less respect for seniority age, position and so forth than would be the case in a collectivist culture. 2) Western societies often try to limit the power of government officials. 3) Westerners tend to have a somewhat suspicious and even negative view of power and authorityCulture shock/culture fatigueCulture shock is a feeling of being confused and overwhelmed by life in another culture. People who experience culture shock often feel fatigued, impatient and irritable. They may also begin trying to avoid interaction with foreigners, and even become increasingly critical and hostile toward them. Foreigners in China sometimes experience culture shock and so do Chinese who go to live in other countries.Low contextLow context culture, in which context is not assumed to be understood, messages are explicit, direct, and completely encoded in words, and meaning is entrusted almost entirely to words. Low context communication is just the opposite of high-context communication. its the mass of information is rested in the explicit code, e.g. American German.High context communicationHigh context culture rely on the context, either the actual physical environment of communication or an internalized social context or both, or convey a large part or even all of a messages meaning. High context communication is a kind of communication in which most of the information is already in the person; while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message, e.g. Chinese, Japanese.Projected cultural similarityProjected cultural similarity is the tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically think and feel more the same way we do. In other words, we sometimes assume that while foreigners may look different, dress differently, and speak different languages, inside we are all more or less the same. People from different culture assume they understand each other instead of asking each other what they think. Because they each expect the other person to react more or less the same way they would, they dont check to see whether or not the other person actually has the same feelings and reactions they would.“Loose” culturesLoose culture doesnt demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior. They also tend to be relatively tolerant of behavior that does not conform to cultural norms. And there is less pressure on individuals within the same culture to behave the same way most other people in the culture do.“Tight” culturesexpect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the culture. Here is an example of how people deal with people who are born left-handed. In tight cultures, children who favor their left hand are encouraged or even forced to use their right hand instead, and the percentage of left-handed people in the adult population is much smaller.EthnocentrismEthnocentrism is the tendency to think of ones own culture as being at the center of the world in other words, to assume that ones own cultures way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal, and correct than the way people from other cultures think and act.Ingroups & OutgroupsIn-Groups: “In-groups” are the people we have the most in common with and identify most closely with, such as our family, classmates, or co-workers. We also have larger in-groups such as people who are from our own region, religious group, ethnic group, or nation.Out-groups: out groups are those groups of people who we do not identify with-people from other families, regions, ethnic groups, or nations. Toward outsiders, we tend to be more critical, suspicious, and willing to pass harsh judgments.War storiesThe term “war stories” originally referred to the kinds of stories soldiers would tell after experiences in battle. Now “war stories” refers more generally to any stories people tell after strange or stressful experiences, including stories about unusual encounters with foreigners. War stories naturally tend to be biased against outsides, so they tend to reinforce negative views toward foreigners. Whats more, negative views based on an experience with one foreigner are often used as evidence to draw conclusions about foreigners in general.【ANSWER QUESTIONS IN DETAIL】What are the problems in intercultural communication?intercultural communication 定义1) Six stumbling blocks 2) Assuming more cultural similarities leads to misunderstanding 3) Language difference 4) Misinterpreting verbal communication and body language from other country 5) Stereotype and preconceptions 6) Evaluate before really understanding 7) Interact with foreigners stressfully and suffer from culture shock 8) Tend to generalize or simplify 9) Tend to define groups by a few key characteristic 10) Assume everyone is similarWhy is it hard to teach a culture?How does Chinese culture differ from Western culture?Chinese culture:1. collectivism-emphasis on the doctrine of the mean2. large power distancehierarchy/ intergroup (ingroup) harmony and avoidance of overt (covert) conflict in interpersonal relations3. hypocritical4. hypocrisy5. belief in the “naturalness, necessity, and inevitability of hierarchy.”6. inequality based on achievement, especially academic, moral, and financial achievement7. belief that “the judgment of wise people” is a better way to regulate life than rigid, artificial laws8. people exist “in and through relationship with others.”9. academic emphasis on memory, attention to detail, and lengthy homeworkWestern culture:1. activity-a dominant mode of activity is doing2. equality3. motivation based on achievement4. the world is material /secular rather than spiritual5. optimistic6. individualist7. materialism8. success9. philanthropic-humanitarianism-voluntary charity/anonymousVirtues? (中国文化/西方文化强调的virtues)virtue 定义Chinese: formality/ hierarchy/ industriousness/ being filial/ hard work/ modesty/ thrifty Americans: activity-dominant/ equality/ motivation based on achievement/ the world is material rather than spiritual/ optimistic/ individualist/ materialism/ success/ humanitarianismComment on “Never a borrower or lender be”.“Individualist” 定义As it is firstly a famous American saying. “Never a borrower or a lender be”, this sentence means that it is best to not lend money to other people and to not borrow from other people. When we lend something we risk losing both the thing we lend and the friendship with that other person. To begin with, it is because westerners are in Individualist Cultures. Individualists feel less obligation to others, whether they are in-groups or out-groups. Secondly, because of their characteristics, their individualism, western people tend to be very independent and self-reliant. They will always solve their problems by themselves. So they dont want others to rely on them, either.What are some ways in which Western societies differ in how they view the issue of equality?Hierarchy 定义“equality” can mean different things in different Western countries. For example, in US culture, “equality” almost always means “equality of opportunity”, not equal wealth. Americans tend to believe that, as much as possible, all people should be given an equal chance, but then people deserve whatever rewards they work for. Americans thus tend to be willing to accept large differences in wealth between the poor and rich as long as they believe these result from differences in effort and talent.In contrast, Western Europeans, especially Scandinavians, tend to feel that equality of opportunity alone will not guarantee social or material equality. They point out that some people naturally have advantages over others.What can you do to manage culture fatigue? /a prescription for culture shock?定义If you are ever a sojourner in another culture, the first thing is to be aware of the culture shock problem and realize that it is a normal part of adapting to life in a new culture. There may be periods when living in a new culture is hard and tiring, but for most people things get better over time as they become more familiar with the new culture and more comfortable in it. It also helps a great deal if you are able to make friends with some people from the new culture, because friends not only help you enjoy your life in culture B more, they also help you learn to understand and adapt to it more rapidly.Why does it cause intercultural communication problems?(1)PCS 定义(2)It is hard for people to imagine a perspective different from their own. It is effected by human nature; people are accustomed to self-centered. when they communicate with foreigners, they usually assume that foreigners are similar to us(3)As we grow up and learn what is right and wrong，truth and false normal and abnormal, and so forth, we naturally learn to view the world as our culture views it.The only to solve PCS is communication!Comment on the “Golden Rule” - Do unto others what you would have them do unto you.“Projected Cultural Similarity” 定义The sentence means that its better not to do things to others what you dont want others do to you. This behavior shows the phenomena “projected cultural similarity”. In our cultural system, if you dont like thing done to you, you just dont impose on others. Its a kind of virtue. But from the aspect of PCS, people just assume people from other cultures view things the same way we do. What we think is right, we consider others will think its right, too. However, it just doesnt work out like that. Because of different cultural background, we have different interpretations of everything happened. We cannot expect others o think or act the same as we do.Comment on conformity in Western cultures.“Loose” culture 定义 “Tight” culture 定义One interesting aspect of culture is the degree to which its members expect everyone to conform, to all think and act in similar ways. Some scholars divide cultures into two broad categories, “loose” and “tight”.“Loose” cultures do not demand a high degree of conformity. In loose cultures, people have a relatively wide range of views as to what is considered normal behavior.“Tight” cultures, in contrast, expect a relatively high degree of conformity. There is a clear consensus as to what is and is not acceptable behavior, and there is more pressure on people to conform to the norms of the cultures. This may cause some difficulty for Chinese may expect Westerners to be more uniform in their beliefs, values, and ideas than is in fact the case. Chinese culture is tight culture, and western cultures are loose cultures. So conformity in western cultures is less than it in Chinese culture.Factors contributing to tightness/ looseness in a society?“Loose” culture 定义 “Tight” culture 定义 (加些自我发挥)1. The degree of change in the population-the more people move, the more loose and individualist a society tends to be2. The density of the populationsmall dense societies tend to be collectivist, hence tighter. Large dense society tend to be more complex, hence not quite so tight-melting pot3. The number of choices available in society-the more choices available, the more room there is for individualism4.The degree of conformity of one country the more conformity there is, the tighter and vice versa.The similarity & difference between “Projected Cultural Similarity” and “Ethnocentrism”?“Projected Cultural Similarity” 定义 “Ethnocentrism” 定义The similarity:both of them cannot be avoided or overcame in intercultural communication. These two phenomena show that every country or nation consider their own culture as the center.Difference: PCS: People have the tendency to assume that other people from other cultural background basically think and feel more or less the same way as they do. E: People have the tendency to think their culture has the superiority to others and assume that their own cultures way of thinking and acting is more natural, normal and correct than the way people from other cultures thinking and act.Why are in/ outgroups a problem in intercultural communication?In/ outgroups 定义(1) We generally have more positive feelings toward members of our in-groups than we do toward outsiders.(2) We tend to have a stronger sense of obligation to insiders than to outsiders.(3) We tend to judge in-groups and out-groups by different standards.(4) We bear grudge against people from other culture because of misunderstanding of the way they treat out-groups.So the ties of goodwill and trust between in-groups and out-groups are often relatively weak, an