Literature-Review文献综述.doc

河北科技师范学院毕业论文文献综述题目: Business Negotiation with Americans from a Cultural Perspective 和美国人进行商务谈判 从文化的角度分析学生姓名：邓晓飞指导教师：陈晓霞系别：人文艺术系专业、班级：英语本科0403班学号：1714040323完成时间：2008年3月5日河北科技师范学院教务处制Literature Review Business depends on communication. As business expends, intercultural negotiation is a subject concerned every organization. In order to communicate with another culture, we need to study it and understand it.With the emergence of a global economy and Chinas WTO entry, China has witnessed a sharp increase in foreign investment and numerous China-based firms into the international market. So far as Chinese businesspersons are concerned, at no time in history has there been so great a need for international negotiating skills. Nevertheless, what makes one a good businessman in one culture may not work well in another, because communication rules and practices vary notably across cultures. The greater the cultural differences, the larger barriers to communication, and the more likely distortion of the negotiation. To communicate successfully, cultural differences between the parties concerned must be identified and bridged.1. The definition of cultureScholars have never been able to agree on a simple definition of culture. As early as 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn listed 164 definitions of culture that they found in the anthropology literature. And, of course, many new definitions have appeared since. For our purposes, we are concerned with those definitions that are conductive to our comprehension of the relationship between culture and communication.Geert Hofstede, an expert on management and cross-cultural differences, defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another Culture, in this sense, includes systems of values; and values are among the building blocks of culture.” Geert Hofstede, Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1984Another definition comes from sociologists Zvi Namenwirth and Robert Weber, who considered culture as “a system of ideas” and argued that these ideas constitute “a design for living.” J. Z. Namenwith and R. B. Weber, Dynamics of Culture, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987, P.8. Here we follow both Hofstede and Namenwirth and Weber by viewing culture as a system of values and norms that are shared among a group of people and that when taken together constitute a design for living and negotiating. By values we mean abstract ideas about what a group believes to be good, right, and desirable. Put it differently, values are shared assumptions about how things ought to be. R. Mead, International Management: Cross-cultural Dimensions, Oxford: Blackwell Business. 1994 2. Researches abroad The subject of America culture in business negotiation, the researchers abroad have had a very broader effect in Sino-America business negotiation.Geert Hofstede, in his bookEnglish for Business Negotiation（2005，4 th edition）show us the point of view about the commercial practices of American culture:In the U.S, the rituals involved in exchanging bossiness cards are sometimes not observed as closely as in other countriesMeetings will proceed after some brief, preliminary small talk Usually, bossiness is conducted at an extremely fast pace. Americans tend to dislike periods of silence during negotiations; they are used to making up their minds quickly and decisively. Often, American businesspeople try to extract an oral agreement at the first meeting.Many Americans believe that their country is the most successful economic and democratic powder, and assume that American ways are the correct ones .this attitude frequently leads to a lack of interest in or knowledge of other countries .The United states is a very ethnocentric culture, and so it is closed to most outside information, Thinking tends to be analytical concepts are abstracted quickly, and the universal rule is preferred.The concept time is money is taken seriously in US business culture. so always get to the point, Americans often know little of concepts such as saving face” and the social niceties and formalities that are vitally important to other cultures, In general, people can be very blunt and will not hesitates to disagree with you.In arguments, Americans will often emphasize their financial strength and indomitable position, Generally, they will use a majority vote unhesitatingly if they have it and will not spend much time seeking consensus. In many cases, they are willing to fire anyone jeopardizing their deal.Walker, D.E. and walker, T. (2000) Doing Business Internationally: the Guide to Cross-cultural Success. (2nd ed.) McGraw-Hill. show us his view about the commercial practices of American culture:American businesspeople are opportunistic and willing to take chances, opportunism and risk taking often result in Americans going for the biggest possible slice of the business, 100% if possible.US salespeople sometimes bring final contracts to first meetings with prospective clients. In large firms, contracts under $10,000 can often be approved by one middle manager in a single meeting.Be aware that the united states is the most litigious society in the world. There are lawyers who specialize in practically every industry and segment of society.In negotiations, evidence is sometimes biased bun faith in the ideologies of democracy, capitalism, and consumerism. the subjective feelings of the participants are not as much of a factor. persistence is another characteristic you will frequently encounter in American businesspeople; There is a prevailing belief that there is always a solution. Moreover, they will explore all options when negotiations are at an impasse.Anxiety often develops over deadlines and results. The work ethic is strong, so that it appears that Americans lives revolve around work.Consistency is another characteristic among American businesspeople: When they agree to a deal, them rarely change their minds.Americans tend to be future oriented. Innovation often takes precedence over tradition. this culture stresses individual and achievement .moreover, the golf course is often a venue for business discussions and deals. golf is a popular sport, especially among businesspeople. Moreover, the golf course is often a venue for business discussions and deals.Ethnic and social bias against some minorities does exist. Nevertheless, personal equality is advocated by law.Outside of the office, Americans tend to be informal and insist on staying on a firstIn my point of view, the greater the cultural differences, the more likely barriers to communication and misunderstandings become. And we should study more things about the commercial practices of American culture.3. Researches in china Americans emphasize free competition and individualism. Very often, the emphasis on self-interest and freedom of the individual can run counter to commitment and community. The business firm values the person who is mobile, energetic, creative, and ambitious.InEnglish Business Negotiation（2005）Caoling and Zhangjing show us their point of views about The Impact of American Cultural differences on International Business Negotiations. 3.1 Language and Communication English has become the language of business all over the world. Many non-native English speakers speak excellent English. But most Americans only speak English. For the Americans, the stage of exchanging task-related information in business negotiations is relatively direct, with clear statements of needs and preferences. They may discuss topics other than business at the negotiation table, such as the weather, sports, etc, but not for long. Small talk is kept to a minimum. Usually the discussion is moved to the specific business at hand after 5-10 minutes. They tend to spend most time in the stage of negotiation-persuasion. Generally, Americans openly disagree and use aggressive persuasive tactics such as threats and warnings. /Americans tend to make concessions throughout the negotiations, settling one issue, then proceeding to the next. Thus the final agreement is a sequence of several smaller concessions.3.2 ValuesIn the United States, there are strong values regarding independence, freedom and individual equality. The sense of personal freedom is very strong. Individuals are not necessarily constrained to a particular social class, location or economic group by birth. As a result, individuals strive to achieve personal goals, seek personal autonomy and often prefer to act as individuals rather than as a member of group. Individuals are being empowered as decision-makers for their groups, divisions or companies.Their communication pattern tends to be present-oriented, self-oriented and action-oriented.Freedom is a foundation value of the American economy: free markets, free movement of people, free entry into new businesses, freedom to take or leave a job, etc.Americans consume much and save little. They purchase cars and go into debt to pay for them. Many prefer to purchase using their credit card, then cannot fully pay at the monthly billing time. Personal success and a better life is measured in more goods: a bigger house, more expensive cars and club memberships, etc.They place great value on time. Using time efficiently is a critical goal and admired measure of skill. Time dominates how meetings are planned, phone calls are made, and meals are scheduled. They will tend to be impatient when the process of negotiation slows down. To them, foreigners who do not respect this time orientation are viewed as less professional or less sophisticated than those who do.Americans make decisions based upon the bottom line and on cold, hard facts. They do not play favorites. Economics and performance count, not people , business is business.3.3 Decision-making process In the American view, a business negotiation is a problem-solving activity; the solution being a deal that suits both parties.When faced with a complex negotiation task, Americans tend to divide the large task up into a series of smaller tasks. Issues such as prices, packing and delivery may be settled one issue at a time, with the final agreements. For them , progress in the negotiation is measured by how many issues have been settled.The decision making process is just like a cost-benefit analysis applied to all parties who would be touched by the decision. A decision is considered right because it produces the greatest net benefit when all the costs and benefits to all the affected parties are taken into account. So the American usually list the possible effects and estimate the magnitude of their costs and benefits as accurately as possible.4. Conclusion In a word, international business negotiations take place across national boundaries. This means that understanding the different cultural differences in all facets of business are very important to the operation of international business negotiations. Transcending cultural limits is a formidable but essential task if negotiations with foreign parities are to succeed. In order to follow the former ones step and find more method to be more successful in the business neg