语用学作业1-刘娜.doc

Term-paper for PragmaticsName: 刘娜 ID:61070204096Course: PragmaticsInstructor: He GangDate: Jan 20091. Brief summary of PragmaticsChapter 1 is about definitions and background. Definitions: Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning, the study of contextual meaning, and the study of how more gets communicated than is said and the study of the expression of relative distance, and its relationship with other area of linguistic analysis: Syntax, semantics, and pragmatics are as follows: Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, how they are arranged in sequence, and which sequences are well-formed. Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world. Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. In this three-part distinction, only pragmatics allows humans into the analysis. Thus, pragmatics is appealing because its about how people make sense of each other linguistically, but it can be a frustrating area of study because it requires us to make sense of people and what they have in mind. The regularity of pragmatics is that people tend to behave in fairly regular ways when it comes to using language. Some of that regularity derives from the fact that people are members of social groups and follow general patterns of behavior expected within the group. Another source of regularity in language use derives from the fact that most people within a linguistic community have similar basic experiences of the world and share a lot of non-linguistic knowledge. The pragmatics wastebasket: Pragmatics explains some phenomena that syntax and semantics can not explain.Chapter 2 talks about Deixis and distance. Deixis is a technical term for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means “pointing” via language. Deictic expression: any linguistic form used to accomplish this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, which is also called indexicals. There are three kinds of indexicals, which are person deixis, used to indicate people, spatial deixis, used to indicate location, and temporal deixis, used to indicate time. Proximal terms refer to the “near speaker” indexicals, while distal terms refer to the “away from speaker” indexicals. Person deixis clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified by the pronouns for first person (I), second person (you) and third person (he, she or it). Expressions which indicate higher statues are described as honorifics. T/V distinction is the distinction between forms used for a familiar versus a non-familiar addressee in some languages. In English, the distance associated with third person forms can be used for an ironic or humorous person or to make potential accusations. While in considering spatial deixis, it is important to remember that location from the speakers perspective can be fixed mentally as well as physically. This is described as deictic projection. It may be that the truly pragmatic basis of spatial deixis is actually psychological distance. The third one is called temporal deixis. One basic type of temporal deixis in English is in the choice of verb tense. The present tense is the proximal form and the past tense is the distal form. In temporal deixis, the remote or distal form can be used to communicate not only distance from current time, but also distance from current reality or facts. Deixis and grammar: The basic distinctions for person, spatial, and temporal deixis can all be seen between direct and indirect speech.Chapter 3 is about Preference ( 指示)and inference（推断）. Reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something. Those linguistic forms are referring expressions, which ban is proper nouns, noun phrases and pronouns. Reference is clearly tied to the speakers goals and the speakers beliefs. This chapter also talks about referential and attributive uses. Attributive use means whoever fits the description. Referential use means referring to a kind of people with descriptive properties. Expressions themselves cannot be treated as having reference, but are invested with referential function in a context by a speaker or writer. The third point is names and referents. A name or proper noun can not only be used to identify one specific person, but also an entity. We have to learn to infer from the context. The fourth topic in this chapter is the role of co-text. Co-text limits the range of possible interpretations the listeners or readers might have for a word. Reference is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world; it is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identify an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intended. The definition of these items are also explained in this part: Anaphoric reference(前指)Antecedent先行词Anaphor回指对象；前指Cataphora 后指.Chapter 4 explain the definition of presupposition and entailment 预设与蕴涵. A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences have entailments. Types of presupposition include potential presuppositions，existential presupposition，factive presupposition， lexical presupposition，structural presupposition, non-factive presupposition, and counter-factual presupposition.Chapter 5 shows us what are cooperation and implicature. Implicature is an additional conveyed meaning. We also have to follow the cooperative principle during communication: 1.quantity; 2.quality; 3.relation; 4.manner be perspicuous. In this chapter, these definitions are also discussed: conventional implication; generalized conversational implicatures; scalar implicatures; particularized conversational implicatures; properties of conversational implicatures; conventional implicatures.chapter 6speech acts and events. This chapter introduces the concept of language use as a form of action, and presents a detailed framework for the analysis of speech acts. It presents a critical review of problems in speech act theory and a proposal for a different approach based on the study of linguistic action.Chapter 7 is about politeness and interaction. This chapter discusses linguistic politeness, and offers lots of detailed discussion and illustrations from different languages.Chapter 8-conversation and preference structure. This chapter discusses conversation as interpersonal communication, viewed from a range of perspectives, and illustrates different aspects of conversational style as the basic tools with which people communicate.Chapter 9-Discourse and culture. This chapter discusses the studies undertaken within the framework of the Cross-cultural Speech Act Realization Project and talks about how cultural values and norms shape different modes of interaction.2. Pragmatics theory discussion“The word implicature is derived from the verb to imply, as is its cognate implication. Originally, to imply means to fold something into something else (from the Latin verb plicare to fold); hence, that which is implied is folded in, and has to be unfolded in order to be understood. A conversational implicature is, therefore, something which is implied in conversation, that is, something which is left implicit in actual language use. The reason that pragmatics is interested in this phenomenon is that we seem to be dealing here with a regularity that cannot be captured in a simple syntactic or semantic rule, but has to be accounted for in other ways. As Bilmes has expressed it, “In everyday talk, we often convey propositions that are not explicit in our utterances but are merely implied by them. Sometimes we are able to draw such inferences only by referring what has been explicitly said to some conversational principle. In certain of these cases, we are dealing with conversational implicature ”. (Bilmes 1986:27) To obtain a satisfactory account of implicature, we appeal not just to some general conversational principles, but to specific, pragmatic ones. A logical implication does not have to correspond to what in everyday life we understand by implies” 2.Implicature is extremely useful in language teaching, learning and communication. Implicature meanings that some implied meaning exist in the utterance during the process of communication. It is an additional conveyed meaning. By using implicature, the speaker expects that the listener will be able to work out, on the basis of what is already known, the implicature intended in this context. Among different type of implicature, conversational implicature plays an important role and is the core of pragmatics. During the process of communication, each sentence is composed of two parts: one is verbal meaning and the other is implicature meaning. Only by thoroughly understanding both meanings, can we truly understand the conversation of other people completely. Thats why conversational implicature is so crucial.For example: a man asked a woman, “Do you know where the railway station is?”, and the woman replied, “I am a new comer here, too!” the woman didnt answer the question directly, but said she was a new comer. Her answer implied the meaning that she herself had no idea about the location of the railway station either. This kind of conversation always occurs in our daily life, which is the use of conversational implicature.3. Pragmatics application to teaching experienceConversational implicature is a major test aspect in College Entrance Examination, especially in Listening, Close and Reading comprehension. In Part A-short conversation of Listening, 5070% questions are testing students ability to understand conversational implicature. For example: the question 510 in listening part in 2004 College Entrance Examination:5. W: John, how did your maths exam go?M: I thought I might have failed, but in fact I came in the top 10% in the class.Q: What can we learn about the man from the conversation?A) He did better than expected.B) He failed the math exam.C) He used to be a top studentD) He answered only 10% of the questions6. W: What did you think of yesterdays film?M: Well, I left when the film was only half way through.Q: What was the film like according to the man?A) InterestingB)RelaxingC)UnfinishedD)Disappointing7. W: Come on, what are we waiting for?M: Sorry, madam. I cant start until you put on your seat belt.Q: What does the man mean?A)He has to wait for someone elseB) He has to fix the seat first.C) There is something wrong with the carD) The woman must fasten the seat belt.8. M: Congratulations, Mary! I heard you won the first prize at the speech contest.W: There must be another Mary. I wasnt there.Q: What does the woman mean?A)She won the first prizeB)She was glad to hear the news.C)She did not attend the contestD)She had to help another Mary9. M: Honey, do you realize you had an appointment with the dentist an hour ago?W: I did?Q: Whats the womans reaction to the mans remark?A)RegretB)PainC)SurpriseD)Gratitude10. W: Oh, thats too bad. Its out of order again!M: Sorry, madam, but you have to walk up the stairs today.Q: What are the speakers probably talking about?A) A telephoneB)An automobileC)A refrigeratorD)An elevator 3Another example in reading comprehension in 2008, passage A: “Your daughter is at the age when she is trying to look beautiful, trying on new masks.” “Let her try various looks until she is comfortable in her own skin.” Question: the solution to Plain Moms problem is to_. A. make her daughter look less ridiculousB. let her daughter dress up like her friends. C. make her daughter go to a spa every week D.