语言测试的基本理论.doc

Theories and Practice of English Language TestingChapter One: Basic Notions about Language Testing1.1 What is language testing, and what is it concerned about?（语言测试的性质和目的）Language testing refers to the systematic and scientific ways to measure and evaluate learners learning result and teachers teaching effectiveness.1.2. Some basic notions and points about language testing:1.2.1What is language ability and measurement of language ability (语言能力的测量)?1.2.2. Scope of language ability is shown as the following diagram: 语言能力 组织能力 语用能力 语法能力 语篇能力 语言功能能力 社会语言能力语音 词语连接 表达功能 对方言或变体的语感 词汇 修辞结构 控制功能 对语域差异的语感词法 教诲功能 对自然地道语言的语感句法 想象功能 对文化含义或比喻的理解1.2.3 Language measurement refers to the meaningful and appropriate interpretations that English teachers make on the basis of a given test scores. As we know that learners language ability is psychological behaviors, and is difficult to measure. Therefore, we have to use some quantitative scores or criteria to measure learners language production.1.2.4 Rules for the measurement of language ability (语言能力的测量法则)1.2.5 Rules refer to the ways and criteria to measure learners language ability. A reliable and valid measurement should be based on the reasonable and scientific rules and methods.1.2.6 What is a language test? A language test refers to any procedures for measuring learners language competence and performance. Anastasi(阿纳斯塔西), a psychologist defined the test as a standardized and objective measurement of behavior samples1.(将心理测验定义为一种对行为样本客观和标准化的测量1961).1.2.7 What is evaluation? Evaluation refers to any systematic procedures for gathering and analysis of information for the purpose of decision making. (为作出某种决策而收集资料，并对其进行分析、解释的系统过程) Evaluation uses both quantitative methods and qualitative methods (量化、质化方法) to evaluate a learners language competence and performance. (Weiss, 1972)1.3. The purpose of Language tests is to measure a learners language ability. In order to achieve this purpose, a test paper is usually designed to check or test the learner. And scores obtained by the learner are used clues or evidence to evaluate the learners language competence and performance. A test paper, just like a ruler for measuring length, and width of certain objects, should be proper, scientific and accurate, so that we can get the reliable and valid evaluation of the learners language ability.1.3 Functions of language include:1.3.1 Diagnostic function: Just as a doctor does some diagnoses to check a patients illness, a teacher often designs some tests to find out learners progress and achievements as well as disadvantages and weakness in the course of teaching. The teacher can also use test as the means of getting feedback about his teaching methods and results. That is to find out what should be improved in terms of teaching materials, teaching methods, and learning environment, as well.1.3.2. Selective function: Some tests are designed in order to select applicants of certain levels or qualifications to be enrolled for some universities, such as TOEFL, Test of English as a Foreign Language, IELTS, International English Language Testing System，(由英国文化协会组织的考试，简称雅思考试,即国际英语语言测试系统)，and Chinas College Entrance Examination, etc. 1.3.3 Placement function: Tests designed to place students of different levels into different classes or groups, so that proper textbooks, teaching methods can be used to teach students of different levels, so as to achieve better teaching results. These tests are called placement tests (分班考试).1.3.4. Teaching function: Tests are designed at certain stages for students to get their general information so that teachers can check their teaching effectiveness and learners learning results so that they can apply different strategies to improve their teaching methods to meet the need of the students. Teaching function may be shown more clearly in the following flow chart: 毕业考试2 课程考试1入学 a. Enrolment of new students b. Having Test 1 to know learners present standing and place them into different class or groupsc. Different programs, courses and strategies for students of different levels d. Having Test 2to know whether the learners have arrived at the expected learning targetse. Graduation (if the learners have arrived at the targets, they will be allowed to graduate, otherwise certain remedial measures should be added to help learners to reach the expected targets before graduation.1.3.5 Scientific research function: Some tests are held to achieve information or data for scientific research, into the questions, such as: Comparison between second language acquisition and second language learning Environment for the efficiency of second language learning Relationship between different teaching programs / teaching strategies and learning results Factors that affect the second language learning Relationship between teaching materials and language learning efficiency Types of language tests1.4. Classification of tests on basis of learning stages:1.4.1 Placement Test (编班测试): A placement test is designed to place students at an appropriate level in a program or course. The term “placement test” does not refer to what a test contains, or how it is contrasted, but to the purpose for which it is used. Various types of test or testing procedures (e.g. dictation, an interview, a grammar test) can be used for placement purpose. 1.4.2 Classroom test (随堂测试): A classroom test is a short test designed to test learning effectiveness after a certain period of teaching, for example, after lecturing of certain units or chapters The purpose of the test is to find out how much and how well the students have learned from the lectures and help them to grasp the major points of the lectures and text books. Testing items can include dictation, spelling, blank-filling, paraphrase, and translation, etc. 1.4.3 Mid-term test: (期中测试): A mid-term test is held in the middle of a semester. It is comparatively a longer, more systematic and comprehensive test than a classroom test. The test is designed to get information about learners comprehensive understanding and mastering of what they have learned. 1.4.4 End-of-term test, also final-term test: A final-term test refers the test designed in accordance with the general teaching program and held at the end of a semester. The purpose of the test is to obtain the general information about what the students have learned during the whole semester and their ability to solve problems with their learned knowledge and skills. The purpose includes the following three aspects:n To review and strengthen what has been learned in the semestern To evaluate a teachers teaching effectivenessn To revise teaching plans and strategies in the next semester1.5 Classification on basis of purposes1.5.1 Proficiency test (水平测试): A proficiency test measures how much of a language someone has learned. It is not linked to a particular language course, e.g. intensive reading, but measures the learners general level of language mastery. Some proficiency tests have been standardized for worldwide use, such as American Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), British University of Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (CCPE) and Chinas English Proficiency Test (EPT), etc. A proficiency test measures what an applicant, who wants to study abroad, has learned relative to a specific purpose, e.g. does he or she know enough English to follow lectures in English.1.5.2 Achievement test (成绩测试): An achievement test measures how much of a language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study. With the help of this kind of test, the teacher can judge the success of his or her teaching and to identify the weakness of his or her students.1.5.3 Language aptitude test (潜能/素质测试)：An aptitude test measures a persons aptitude for second language or foreign language learning, and can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to succeed. Language aptitude tests usually consist of several different tests which measure such abilities as: a. sound coding ability-the ability to identify and remember new sounds in a foreign language b. grammatical coding ability-the ability identify the grammatical functions of different parts of sentences c. inductive learning ability-the ability to work out meanings without explanation in a new language. d. memorization-the ability to remember words, rules, and etc.1.5.4. Diagnostic test (诊断测试)：A diagnostic test is designed to show what skills or knowledge a learner knows and does not know. For example, a diagnostic pronunciation test may be used to measure the learners pronunciation of English sounds. It would show which sounds a student is and is not able to pronounce.1.6 Classification of test on basis of testing methods1.6.1 Discrete-point test (分离式测试): A discrete-point test measures knowledge of individual language items, such as a grammar test which has different sections on tenses, adverbs, and prepositions. Discrete point tests are based on the theory that language consists of different parts (e.g. grammar, sounds and vocabulary), and different skills (e.g. listening, speaking, reading and writing). These are mad up of elements that can be tested separately.1.6.2 Integrative test (综合性测试)：An integrative test requires a learner to use several language skills at the same time, such as a dictation test, which requires the learner to used language of grammar, vocabulary, and listening comprehension. (见example P. 12)1.7 Classification of tests on basis of test-evaluating methods1.7.1 Subjective test (主观性测试)：Subjective tests are scored according to the personal judgment of the marker, such as translation and essay tests. Sometimes it is difficult to evaluate a subjective test because there is no so-called standard evaluating criteria and different markers may give different scores to the same essay1.7.2 Objective test（客观性测试）：Objective test are the tests that can be marked without the use of the examiners personal judgment. Usually only one answer is accepted as the correct. TRUE-FALSE and MULIPLE-CHOICE tests are examples of objective tests.1.7.3 Communicative language testing (交际语言测试)：Communicative language tests no only measure the learners ability to apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when, where and to whom to use these sentences. A communicative test measures the following aspects: a. Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of a language b. Knowledge of rules of speaking, for example, knowing how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types of speech events, knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one speaks to and in different situations c. Knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations. d. Knowing how to use language appropriately when communicating with others, such as social setting, the relationship to others, and the types of language that can be used in a particular occasion. . Theories and Practice of English Language TestingChapter Two: Theoretical Foundation of English Language Testing2.1 The practice of English language testing has been based on a series of language learning and language teaching theories. The most important and influential theories on language testing in the past century are stated in the following three stages of development:2.2.1Pre-scientific testing, also named as the essay-translation approach (科学前语言测试或写作翻译法测试)：This approach was widely used before 1940s. The testing was mainly conducted according to traditional and experiential testing methods, and was lack of systematic research and scientific evidence. The examiner designed his or her tests just based on his or her personal teaching experience, therefore, some scholars call it pre-scientific testing. This testing method had some remarkable features:a. Lack of systematic and scientific study in terms of language testing, and tests were designed in accordance with the examiners subjective desires and personal experience, and evaluated by his arbitrary judgment.b. Test papers are usually consisted of translation, writing and grammatical analysis.c. The content of the testing papers had remarkably literary features, related to literature.d. The test paper was completed in written English.2.2.2 Structural-Psychometric testing (结构主义/心理测试法)：This testing method, based on structural linguistics and psychometrics, stressed that language as a system included some linguistic units, such as sounds, words and sentences. All these units could be tested and evaluated separately, and language skills, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing could also be tested in this way. The test paper is typically in the form of multiple choices. 2.2.3 Communicative Language Testing (交际语言测试法)：Bachman believes that communicative language competence (交际语言能力) consists of three important aspects: they are language competence (语言能力), strategic competence (策略能力) and psycho-physiological mechanisms (心理生理机制)a. Communicative language competence includes organizational competence (语言组织能力). That is the ability to make sentences by using correct knowledge of sounds, words and grammar and pragmatic competence (语用能力). That is the ability to use a language in real life- to understand the relationship between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used,b. Strategic competence refers to the cognitive process to use both verbal and non-verbal communication strategies to improve the effectiveness of communication. For example, if a speaker lacks a particular word or structure, he may use a paraphrase or a body gesture to compensate or improve his communication. For instance, “I went to the department yesterday to buy some - - oh, the thing you use to brush your teeth every morning.” Strategic competence consists of: a). assessment strategies (评估策略): to assess or judge the situation in which communication will take place. For example, when you want to ask or help a stranger to find directions, you have to judge the features of the situation and what knowledge and skills you need to arrive at the communicative target. After communication you have to assess the actual effectiveness of your communication-whether you have arrived at the target or not, b).goal-setting strategies (确定目标策略): As a test designer you have to make sure what knowledge or skills you want to test you students, such as vocabulary or grammar, or reading comprehension, etc. c).planning strategies (制定计划策略): Select certain communicative situations for your testing purposes. d). execution strategies (执行计划策略). Select appropriate psycho-physiological organisms to arrive at the above target.C. Psycho-physiological mechanisms (心理生理机制) refers to the involvement of speech organs, e.g. mouth, ears, etc. and the nerve system in the course of communication, That is, the speaker has to use his brain to determine which words, structures, intonation, and ways of expression he has to use in order to achieve his communicative purposes.The relationship of different ingredients of communicative language competence (交际语言能力) can be indicated in the following diagram: （Bachman 的语言交际能力的各个组成部分示意图）： 语言能力（语言知识）知识结构（世界知识） 策略能力 心理生理机制 语言使用场景 2.4.1Authenticity in Language Testing (语言测试的真实性): Authenticity means that language testing should test learners abilities in actual communications. The relationship between the characteristics of language testing tasks (语言测试任务特征) and characteristics of language testing tasks in actual use (实际语言运用任务特征) is described as the following chart:语言测试任务特征实际语言运用任务特征 真实性 2.4.2 Situational authenticity (情景真实性)：refers to the degrees to which language tests have the qualities and features in actual communication, such as from newspapers, magazines, and radio or television programs. For example, the Business English Certificate (BEC) requires the learners to have the ability to conduct business talk in spoken English. Thus, a real-like business talk is arranged between the examiner and examinee to test how well the learner can use his language and strategies to fulfill the business talk.2.4.3 Communicative authenticity (交际真实性)：It refers the degree of learners involvement and participation in the communicative testing tasks, or the interaction between the examiner and the learner. Authenticity is the essence of communicative language testing. To achieve communicative testing purposes, Bachman suggests the following four measures:a. Particular strategies for the fulfillment of the task should be included as necessary information to test-takers in the course of designing testing papers.b. Adequate time, necessary reference and relevant tools should be offered to the test-takers so that they can use efficient strategies to fulfill the tasks.c. Testing tasks should be appropriate, neither too easy nor too difficult. Both extremes will lead to the test-takers poor application of strategies in testing.d. Designing the test in an interesting way. Improvement of authenticity tends to increase test-takers; interest and creativity in communicative testing.2.5 Testing methods and te