英语信管专业1至6单元中英文结合.doc

第一课1信息社会信息社会是一个以信息创建、发布、传播、使用和管理为重要经济、政治和文化活动的社会。知识经济是信息社会相应的经济部分，通过对经济开发的理解来创造财富。这种社会的特点是普遍以信息技术为生产、经济和社会的中心。信息社会被看作工业社会的后继者。紧密相关的概念有后工业社会、后福特制、后现代社会、知识社会、信息通信社会、信息革命和网络社会。2信息科学信息科学(也称信息研究)是一个跨学科的领域，主要涉及信息的收集、分类、管理、储存、检索和传播。一些人把信息科学看作图书馆的同义词，而其他人则认为这两个术语覆盖不同的领域。信息科学研究知识在组织中的运用，以及人、组织和信息系统的交互作用。它经常被(错误地)看作计算机科学的一个分支。实际上，它是一个广泛的跨学科领域，不仅包括计算机科学，也包括数学、图书馆学、认知科学和社会科学。 信息科学的焦点是从涉及的利益相关方的观点看问题，然后应用信息和其他所需的技术。换言之，它首先处理的是系统性的问题，而不是系统中的个别技术问题。从这个角度来说，信息科学可以被看作对“技术决定论”的回应。“技术决定论”认为“技术按照自己的规律发展，实现自己的潜能，只受可用物质资源的限制，因此必须被看作一个自治系统，它控制并最终渗透到社会的各个子系统中”。在信息科学中，最近几年人们一直在关注人一机交互、组件、语义网、按价值设计、迭代设计过程和人们建立、使用和发现信息的方法。今天这个领域被叫做“信息领域”，有越来越多的信息学校和信息学院出现。 不应该把信息科学与信息论混淆。信息论研究信息的特定数学概念或图书馆学(与图书馆相关的领域，它使用信息科学的一些原理)。3信息技术 按照美国信息技术协会(ITAA)的定义，信息技术(IT)是“研究、设计、开发、执行、支持或管理基于计算机的信息系统，特别是在软件应用和计算机硬件方面。”IT涉及使用电子计算机和计算机软件来转换、存储、保护、处理、传输并安全检索信息。 今天，信息技术这个术语的意义已经扩展到许多计算和技术方面，而且比以往任何时候都更加得到人们的承认。信息技术这把伞可以非常大，覆盖许多领域。IT专业人员执行许多任务，其范围可以从安装应用软件到设计复杂的计算机网络和信息数据库。IT专业人员可以执行的一些任务包括管理数据、组建网络、设计计算机硬件、数据库和设计软件，以及经营和管理整个系统。当计算机与通信技术相结合时，就产生了信息技术。信息技术(IT)是一个广义的术语，可以描述任何有助于产生、管理、存储、通信和/或传播信息的技术。从广义上谈论信息技术时，应该注意到计算机的使用是与信息相关的。4信息论 信息论的主要概念可以通过人类最广泛的交流手段一语言一来理解。一种好的语言包含以下两个最主要方面：首先，最常用的词(如“一个”、“这个”、“我”)应该比那些不常用的词(如“益处”、“一代”、“平常的”)短，这样句子就不会太长。这样对词长短的权衡类似于数据压缩，而且是源编码的主要方面。其次，如果因为噪音(如车辆通过的噪音)错听或漏听了部分句子，听者应该仍然能够理解没有听到的信息的意思。这种健壮性对语言和电子通信系统都一样重要；通过信道编码可以适当地把这样的健壮性建立到通信中。源编码和信道编码是信息论的基本内容。注意这些内容与信息的重要性无关。例如，常说的“谢谢，欢迎再来”所花费的时间与说或写紧急求救“叫救护车!”大约一样长，而后者明显更重要、更有意义。然而，信息论不考虑信息的重要性和意义，因为这些是数据的质量问题，而不是数据的数量和可读性问题，而后者完全由概率决定。普遍认为，信息论是在1948年由克劳德香农在其开创性的著作一个通信的数学理论中提出的。古典信息论的核心观点是在有噪音的信道中传递信息的工程问题。该理论最基本的结果是香农的源编码法则和噪声信道编码法则。源编码法则认为，平均而言，代表一个不确定事件所需要的位数由其熵决定。噪声信道编码法则认为，如果通信率低于一个确定的叫作信道容量的阈值，通过有噪声的信道提供可靠通信是可能的。实际上，使用适当的编码和解码系统，是有可能接近信道容量的。 信息论与一些纯学科和应用学科紧密相连。在过去的半个世纪或更长时间内，全世界的人们一直在研究并将其应用到各种工程实践中：适应系统、预测系统、人工智能、复杂系统、复杂性科学、控制论、信息论、机器学习以及许多其他的系统科学。信息论是广泛而深入的数学理论，具有同样广泛而深入的应用，其中最主要的领域是编码理论。 编码理论与寻找可以提高效率的简明方法相关，这种方法叫做编码，它最大可能地把数据在有噪声信道中通信的净错误率减少到接近香农提出的极限。这些编码可以粗略地分为数据压缩(源编码)和纠错技术(信道编码)。就后者而言，人们用了许多年才发现香农提出的方法是可能的。另一种信息论编码方法是加密算法(包括编码和加密)。来自编码理论和信息论的概念、方法和结果已被广泛应用于密码学和密码分析学。 信息论还被应用于信息检索、智能收集、统计学甚至作曲。1. Information SocietyAn information society is a society in which the creation，distribution，diffusion，use，and manipulation of information is a significant economic, political，and cultural activity. The knowledge economy is its economic counterpart whereby wealth is created through the economic exploitation of understanding.Specific to this kind of society is the central position information technology has for production，economy，and society at large. Information society is seen as the successor to industrial society .Closely related concepts are the post-industrial society，post-modern society，knowledge society，telematic society，information revolution，and network society.2. Information scienceinformation science（also information studies）is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection，classification，manipulation，storage，retrieval and dissemination of information. information science is by some regarded as synonym with library ，while others maintain the two terms cover different rmation science studies the application and usage of knowledge in organizations，and the interaction between people ，organizations and information systems. It is often （mistakenly) considered a branch of computer science. It is actually a broad, interdisciplinary field， incorporating not only aspects of computer science ，but also mathematics，library science， cognitive science，and the social science.Information science focuses on understanding problems from the perspective of the stakeholders involved and then applying information and other technologies as needed. in the other words，it tackles systemic problems first rather than individual pieces of technology within that system. In this respect，information science can be seen as a response to technological determinism，the belief that technology “develops by its own laws，that it realizes its own potential ，limited only by the material resources available，and must therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately permeating all other subsystems of society.” Within information science，attention has been given in recent years to human-computer interaction, groupware, the semantic web, value sensitive design, iterative design processed and the ways people generate, use, and find information. Today this field is called the Field of Information, and there are a growing number of schools and colleges of information.Information science should not be confused with information theory, the study of a particular mathematical concept of information, or with library science, a field related to libraries which use some of the principles of information science.3Information TechnologyInformation technology (IT), as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is “the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer Hardwar.” IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve informationToday, the term information technology has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology, and the term is more recognizable than ever before. The information technology umbrella can be quite large, covering many fields. IT professionals perform a variety of duties that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as the management and administration of entire systems. When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology. Information Technology (IT) is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce，manipulate，store，communicate，and/or disseminate information. Presumably，when speaking of Information Technology (IT) as a whole，it is noted that the use of computers and information are associated.4. Information TheoryThe main concepts of information theory can be grasped by considering the most widespread means of human communication: language. Two important aspects of a good language are as follows: First, the most common words (e.g.，a”，“the”，“I”）should be shorter than less common words (e.g., “benefit”, “generation”, “mediocre”), so that sentences will not be too long. Such a tradeoff in word length is analogous to data compression and is the essential aspect of source coding. Second, if part of a sentence is unheard or misheard due to noise-e.g., a passing car -the listener should still be able to glean the meaning or the underlying message. Such robustness is as essential for an electronic communication system as it is for a language; properly building such robustness into communications is done by channel coding. Source coding and channel coding are the fundamental concerns of information theory.Note that these concerns have nothing to do with the important of messages. For example, a platitude such as “Thank you! Come again” takes about as long to say or write as the urgent plea “Call an ambulance!”, while clearly the latter is more important and more meaningful. Information theory, however, does not consider message important or meaning, as these are matters of the quality of data rather than the quantity and readability of data, the latter of which is determined solely by probabilities.Information theory is generally considered to have been founded in 1948 by Claude Shannon in his seminal work “A Mathematical theory of Communication”. The central paradigm of classical information theory is the engineering problem of the transmission of information over a noisy channel. The most fundamental results of this theory are Shannons source coding theorem, which establish that, on average, the number of bits needed to represent the result of an uncertain event is given by its entropy; and Shannons noisy-channel coding theorem which states that reliable communication is possible over noisy channels provided that the rate of communication is below a certain threshold called the channel capacity can be approached in practice by using appropriate encoding and decoding systems. Information theory is closely associated with a collecting of pure and applied disciplines that have been investigated and reduced to engineering practice under a verity of rubrics throughout the world over the past half century or more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity science, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences of many descriptions. Information theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, amongst which is the vital field of coding theory.Coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called codes, of increasing the efficiency and reducing the net error rate of data communication over a noisy channel to near the limit that Shannon proved is the maximum possible for that channel. These channel to near the limit that data compression (source coding) and error-correction (channel coding) techniques. In the latter case, it took many years to find the methods Shannons work proved were possible. A third class of information theory codes are cryptographic algorithms (both codes and ciphers). Concepts, methods and results from coding theory and information theory are widely used in cryptography and cryptanalysis.Information theory is also used in information retrieval, intelligence gathering, statistics, and even in musical composition.第二课信息是如何组织的? 当你阅读我们为本课程收集的材料时，就在获得信息。你所读到的信息在你决定它的价值并长期保留之前，只是一个短暂的记忆。不管你要保留多久，我们都会保留它，以便你在以后使用，或供未来的学生阅读和吸收。为了以后的可用性，我们已完成了信息在计算机系统中的组织和存储。然而，对信息加工来说，情况并非总是如此。不是所有的信息都可以在线存储，即使它可以被在线存储，没有人保证你今天看到的内容下周还在那里，也没有人保证为了你再次找到它，所有的材料都以逻辑的方式被组织。 天哪!信息的确难以处理，不是吗?但是，在本节论述中我们不要担心信息多么难以存取。现在，我们仅仅关注信息是什么，以及图书馆和可靠的查找技巧如何帮助你获得所需的信息。1信息是什么? 从人类的角度和最广泛的意义而言，信息是你能感觉到的任何事物。它可以包括信件、语言、照片、艺术品、音乐以及几乎所有可被察觉的事物。这确实包含了海量的因素，但事实上，我们所接触到的一切都能提供并确实给我们提供了某种信息。所以我们都是漂浮在信息海洋中的微小有机体。根据本课程和你现在的学习阶段，我们将以信息作为材料进行重点讲解，这种材料已经以某种方式储存，可以帮助我们更好地了解世界。那么，信息是以任何方式记录的、可供未来参考的、帮助理解和产生新信息的任何东西。例如，本课程提供给你的信息可以帮助你发现、分类和解释其他信息。简而言之，我们正面临一项艰巨的任务，因为有那么多信息需要去接受。但是，别灰心，只要努力就会成功。2信息如何组织? 如果我们将所有感知都看作是信息，那么，我们就不能在所有情况下真正找到信息的组织。因为你计划旅行、人际交往和其他日常活动，你的社会经历可能对信息的组织有一定的帮助，但即使你有最完美的计划，即使在最可控制的环境中，你还是无法控制你会接收到什么信息。没有人知道如何销毁信息。如果我们从目前所讨论的角度来研究信息，那么我们可以限制我们的关注点、寻找大多数我们要寻找和使用的信息的组织模式。 在传统的图书馆中，信息包含在图书、杂志、报纸和其他类型的记录媒体中。就杂志和报纸的文章而言，它们可以通过图书馆的目录和索引进行查找。现在这种情况还是大量存在，但我们会发现组织方式发生了变化。我们不再通过目录卡片来寻找图书馆的藏书信息，我们不再依靠打印的读者手册来查找某一主题的文章的位置。以前这些耗时的任务已经由计算机化的“信息系统”来处理，这样就大大提高了查找速度。我们发现信息还是存储在图书馆，但是被很好地组织了。我们发现信息还是存储在杂志、报纸和其他媒体中，但这些信息源有了它们独特的组织系统。对于大部分研究者来说，问题不是图书馆、杂志、期刊或电影中没有他们要的信息，而是要找出信息的组织方法，以便帮助他们找到他们所需的信息。对图书馆材料来说，组织方法是一个详细的主题分类系统，用于检索联机“目录”。对于杂志文章来说，组织机制通常是一个在线索引和或摘要系统，允许研究人员用主题或其他方法存取信息。对于报纸文章来说，组织机制通常是一个在线索引和或摘要系统，允许研究人员用各种方式存取信息。所有这些信息查询系统的共性是组织。人们，包括各领域的专家，为了使这些信息可被他人查找和访问，都在花费时间，努力组织存储他们所获得的信息。简而言之，访问有价值的信息并不像把浏览器指定到AltaVista或HotBot那么简单。计算机可以帮助我们组织信息并自动检索和编目，但我们所有访问的信息是由其他人建立的。简单地说，寻找到特定信息而非偶然信息，要依赖许多人地系统描述大量的信息，不断地在有组织的系统中处理这些信息。对于研究人员来说，幸运的是组织运动始终是人类有史以来一直具有的特点。历史本身就是人类创造和保留的东西，以期指导后人可以做什么和不可以做什么的方法。所以，当你在互联网上用鼠标点击一个资源并认为它是如此奇妙时，请记住它将比你想像的更精彩。但是还有更好的方法来找到可靠的信息，而不是仅仅点击别人偶尔放在网上的任意一个链接。 是的，你可以找到无数免费的在线信息源，但实际可用材料的大部分都不是免费的，所以你需要在这些“大量”资源中组织、编目和检索，以产生有用的信息。对于那些你可能永远无法在互联网上免费获得的信息，你依然可以依靠图书馆。图书馆的任务就是存储和组织信息。Unit2Text A How Is Information Organized?As you are reading the materials that weve gathered together for this course, you are assimilating information. What youve just read is information that you will keep in short term memory until you decide if it is worth keeping for a longer time. Regardless of how long you keep it ,we will keep it available for you to return to later or for future students to read and assimilate at a later date. Weve made arrangements in a computer system to organize and store our information so that it is available for later use. This isnt always the case with information, thought. Not everything is stored online, and, even if it is stored online, there is no guarantee that the information that you see today will still be there next week, and there is no guarantee that the material will be organized in a logical manner that will facilitate your finding it again.Wow! Information sure is difficult to deal with, isnt it?Well, lets not worry about how difficult it is to deal with information storage and retrieval at this stage of the game. Right now, lets just look at what information is and how libraries and solid research skills help you get the information you need1、What is informationWell, in human terms and in the broadest sense, information is anything that you are capable of perceiving. This can include written communications, photographs, art, music, and nearly anything that is perceptible. This really includes an enormous assortment of stimuli, but, realistically, everything we come in contact with is capable of providing and dose provide us with some sort of information. So we are essentially minute organisms afloat in a sea of information.For this course, and for the academic climate in which you are now situated, well focus on information as materials that have been stored in one manner or another that can educate us to a better understanding of our world. Information, then, is anything that can be documented in any form that can then be referred to later as means to understanding and to building new information. This course, for example, provides you with information that will help you to find, sort through, and interpret other information. In sort we have quite an undertaking ahead of us, since there is so much information to be bad. But, take heart. We will succeed in our endeavors.2How is information organized?If we consider information in the sense of all stimuli as information, then we cant really find organization in all cases. Your experience of the world may have some organization to it in that you plan trips and relationships and other daily activities, but you still have litter control over what information you will receive even with the best planning and even in the most controlled environments. Information is one thing that no one has ever figured out how to kill.If we examine information in the sense discussed here, Then we can limit our focus and find patters of organization for most of the information that we will need to find and use.Traditionally, in libraries, information was contained in books, periodicals, newspapers, other types of recorded media. It was accessible through a librarys catalog and with the assistance of indexes, in the case of periodical and newspaper articles, much of this is still true ,but the means by which we discover organization have changed .we no longer consult a card catalog for information about a librarys collection of information. we no longer consult a printed “Readers Guide” for information on where to find articles about a certain subject , most of these previously time-consuming takes have been step up by computerized “information system”. We still find information stored in libraries, and other media and these sources of information have their own systems of organization. The problem for most researchers is not that the information doesnt exist in a library or in a journal or in a magazine or in a motion picture, but that they have yet to discover the organizing principles that are designed to help them find the information they need.For library materials, the organizing principle is a detailed subject classification system available for searching in an online “catalog” . For journal articles, the organizing mechanism is typical an online indexing and /or abstracting system that allows researchers to access information by subject or by some other scheme .For newspaper articles, the organizing mechanism is typically an online indexing and/or abstracting system that allows researchers access in a variety of means. The one thing common to all of these access to all the stored information that they can get their hands on in order to make it searchable and pointing and accessible to other people . In short, accessing good information is not just an simple as pointing your browser to AltaVista or HotBot. Computer can help us to organize information and can even automate indexing and cataloging, but all of our accesses are ultimately created by other people. In short, finding information deliberately rather then serendipitously relies on many people describing myriad bites of information in a systematic manner that can be addressed consistently in an organized system.Fortunately, for researchers, this organizing drive has been characteristic of people throughout history. History, itself, is something people have created and kept, hopefully as a means for teaching future people what to do and what not to do. So, when you click your mouse on a resource on the Internet and think that it is so wonderful, keep in mind that it is even more than just following any link that anyone happens to stick on the Internet.Yes, you can find myriad sources of information online for free, but many of the materials that you can really count on are not freely available, so you need to rely on organization, cataloging and indexing to take advantage of those “heavy duty” sources. And you can rely on libraries to continue to provide you with materials that you may never be able to access freely on the Internet. Information and organizing information is what libraries are about