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ModernLinguistics SongYan Chapter1.Introduction1.WhatisLinguistics?1.1Definition:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Remark:“scientific”referstothewayinwhichitisstudied“study”meansinvestigateorexamine.“language”meanslanguagesingeneral.Ascientificstudyoflanguageisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure. 1.2Thescopeoflinguistics1.2.1GeneralLinguistics:thestudyoflanguageasawhole.1.2.2CoreofLinguistics:Phonetics:thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofabranchoflinguistics.Phonology:howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbols(soundsareprimaryinlinguisticcommunication,theyarerepresentedbycertainsymbols)arearrangedtoformwords.Syntax:thecombinationofthesewordstoformpermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudies.Semantics:thestudyofmeaningwasgraduallydevelopedandbecameknownassemantics.Pragmatics:thestudyofmeaningisconductedinthecontextofuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudy. 1.2.3Interdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy Sociolinguistics:thestudyofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics:relatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.AppliedLinguistics:findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability.Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages. 1.3Someimportantdistinctions 1.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptivePrescriptive:ifalinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior.Descriptive:ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Remark:modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.1.3.2Synchronicvs.diachronicSynchronicstudy:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime.Diachronicstudy thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Anditisahistoricalstudy.Thatmeansitstudiesoveraperiodoftime. Remark:Theformerhasthepriorityoverthelatter.1.3.3Speechandwriting *Theyaretwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.ModernLinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary;whiletraditionalgrammarianstendedtoover-emphasizetheimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence. *Thereasonsformodernlinguistsgivingprioritytospokenform:a.Inanyhumansocietyweknowof,speechprecedeswriting;b.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten. * Forabetterunderstandingoftheimportanceofspeech:Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting;forthewritingsystemisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintodaysworld,therearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.d.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeech.Whilethewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofit. 1.3.4LangueandParoleIntheearly20thcentury,thedistinctionbetweenLangueandParolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussure.Definition:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.thedistinctionbetweenthemItvariesfrompersontoperson,situationtosituation.Relativelystable,doesntchangefrequently.concrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.abstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Theconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Thesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.paroleLangue(whatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole)语料库语言学语料库语言学是20世纪80年代才崭露头角的一门交叉学科，它研究自然语言文本的采集、存储、加工和统计分析，目的是凭借大规模语料库提供的客观翔实的语言证据来从事语言学研究和指导自然语言信息处理系统的开发。语料库顾名思义就是放语言材料的仓库。现在人们谈起语料库，不言而喻是指存放在计算机里的原始文本或经过加工后带有语言学信息标注的语料文本。现在世界上已经有了不少规模较大的语料库，有些是国家级的，有些由大学和词典出版商联合建设。另外，由于个人微机的迅猛发展和存贮数据的硬盘造价持续下降，研究者个人也开始建立适合于自己研究的小型语料库。1.3.5competenceandperformanceItwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950s.Definitionofthem:Competence:theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Remark:Whatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeakerscompetence.(p.7)LAD(languageacquisitiondevice)N.Chomskyclaimsthathumanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.OriginallyChomskyreferredtothisinnateabilityasLAD.Itwasdescribedasanimaginary“blackbox”existingsomewhereinthehumanbrain.*ThedifferencesbetweenSaussureandChomskysdistinction:Theyareverysimilar,butdifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,hisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions;Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,itisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.2.Whatislanguage2.1Definitionsoflanguage:(p.9) Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.2Designfeatures:Thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.CharlesHockettspecified12,andfiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.Fivedesignfeatures:2.2.1Arbitrariness（任意性）Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds2.2.2productivity(创造性）Thisdesignfeaturemakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.2.2.3duality(双重性）Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructuresortwolevels:sounds(lowerlevel)andmorphemesandwords.(higherlevel).2.2.4Displacement(移位性）languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.2.2.5Culturaltransmission(文化传递性）Thedetailsofanylanguagesystemhavetobelearnedandtaught.Exercises:Studyquestionsonpage14.*Chapter2Phonology 1thephonicmediumoflanguage1.1Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.1.2Linguistsareconcernedwithonlythosesoundsthatareproducedbythehumanspeechorgansinsofarastheyhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.1.3Phonicmediumoflanguage:thislimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudies.andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds. 2.Phonetics2.1Definition:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview:articulatoryphonetics:itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeakerspointofview.auditoryphonetics:fromthehearerspointofview.acousticphonetics:itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves.2.2organsofspeech(p19)Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareasorcavities:thepharyngealcavity-thethroat;theoralcavity-themouth;thenasalcavity-thenose. 2.3OrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsbroadandnarrowtranscriptionTowardstheendofthe19thcentury,theInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)cameintobeing.DefinitionofIPA:astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingadifferentletterforeachdistinguishablespeechsound.theIPAprovidesitsuserswithasetofsymbolscalleddiacritics.Diacritics:itcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemakepossible.Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.Itisgenerallyusedindictionariesandlanguageteachingtextbooks.Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsVowels:inproducingavoweltheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionofanykind.Consonants:itisobstructedinonewayoranother.Refertothediagramonpage26and27. 2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsOneisintermsofmannerofarticulation(发音方式）：Stops(塞音）：Fricatives(摩擦音）：Affricates(塞擦音）：Liquids(流音）：Nasals(鼻音）：Glides(滑音）：Anotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation(发音方位）:Bilabial(双唇音）：Labiodental(唇齿音）：Dental(齿音）：Alveolar(齿龈音）：Palatal(腭音）：Velar(软腭音）：Glottal(喉音):Thedescriptionoftheconsonants:voiced/voiceless;placeofarticulation;mannerofarticulation. 2.4.2ClassificationofEnglishvowelsVowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:Thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,thelengthofthevowels. 3. phonology3.1phonologyandphoneticsSimilarity:theyarestudiesofspeechsounds.Differences:theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.Phonology:isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phoneticianstookinterestsinthedifferentversionsofthe“same”sound.Whilephonologically,theyarethesame. 3.2phone,phoneme,andallophoneDefinitionsofthem:Phoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Remark:Aphonedoesntnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedont.Phonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext. Allophones:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.3.3phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhonemiccontrast:ifphoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.Complementarydistribution:ifphoneticallysimilarsoundsareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydontdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution.Sotheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thewordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Remark:consonantsandvowels.(不管形式，只看发音）。Minimalset:allthesesoundcombinationstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning. 3.4somerulesinphonology3.4.1sequentialrulesTherearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Theserulesarecalledsequentialrules.e.g:ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingrulesonp.AssimilationrulesItassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar. 3.4.3DeletionruleIttellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Forexample,design.Deleteagwhenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant. 3.5suprasegmentalfeaturesstress,tone,intonation.(超切分特征）Definition:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures. 3.5.1stressTherearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsentencestress.Stressisarelativenotion,onlywordswithtwoormoresyllablescanbesaidtohavewordstress.InEnglish,stressisfree.Sentencestresscanchangemeaning.3.5.2tone（声调）arepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofvocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage;Chineseis.3.5.3Intonation(语调）Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation.Distinctivefeatures:featuresthatdistinguishmeaning.syllable:isaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.ThesyllablestructureThesyllabictheoryisoftenrepresentedbyatreediagram.SuchtheoriesareoftenknownasNON-LINEARorMULTILEVELPHONOLOGY.O(nset)R(hyme)N(ucleus)Co(da)OpensyllableandclosedsyllableWecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,theRHYMEandtheONSET.Asthevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus,theconsonantsafteritwillbetermedtheCODA.Opensyllable:asyllablethathasnocoda.Closedsyllable:元音结尾的叫开音节；Theonsetpositionmaybeemptyorfilledbyaclusterofasmanyas3consonants,whilethecodapositionmaybefilledbyasmanyas4consonants.(sixths)Chapter3MorphologyGeneralintroductionMorphology：etymology(词源学） lexicology(词汇学） stylistics(形体学） semantics(语义学）Morphologycanbedividedintotwo sub-branches:Inflectionalmorphology（屈折形态学) andlexicalorderivationalmorphology（派生形态学）.ContentwordsandfunctionalwordsOpenclass(开放类词）：inEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyarethecontentwordsofalanguage,sincewecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses.Closedclass(封闭类词）：theothersyntacticcategoriesinclude“grammatical”or“functional”words,conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofrelativelyfewwordsandhavebeenreferredtoasbeingclosedclasswordssincenewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.1.Definition:studiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2.Morpheme:thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringitsmeaning.Whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.3.Allomorph:amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Eachwouldbesaidanallomorphofthemorpheme.4.Typesofmorphemes 3.1Freemorphemes(自由词素）:thosemorphemesmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.Forexample,dog,nationandclosearefreemorphemes.Inotherwords,allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Andpolymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemesarecalledcompounds. 3.2Boundmorphemes（黏着词素）:thosemorphemesmustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme.Forexample,-sindogs,-alinnational,anddis-indisclosecannotoccuralone.Anotherclassification3.3Derivationalaffixes:areboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.itcanmakethewordclasseitherchangedorunchanged.Forexample,black-blackencomputer-computerize3.4Inflectionalaffixes:boundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers.Theyindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjsandadvs.Itdoesntchangethewordclassoftheword.Remark:case:格；degree:级；tense:时态；aspect:体。Thedistinctioncanalsobecalledderivationalandinflectionalmorphemes,howeveritappliestoaffixesonly.Rootscantbedividedintoinflectionalandderivationalones.DerivationalaffixesAccordingtoitspositioninthenewword,affixesaredividedintothefollowings:Prefix:occuratthebeginningofaword.Theymodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydontchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.e.g:dis-un-in-mis-Suffix:attheend.theymodifymeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech. e.g:-ize,-ly,-en.Infix:中缀。 e.g:foot-feet,goose-geeseSomeexamplesderivationalexamples: un+conscious-unconsciousnation+al-national national+ize-nationalizeInflectionalexamples: number:table-tablescarcarscase:boy-boysuniversity-universitys aspect:talking/talked Person:（限定词）（thethirdsingler)：talk-talks5.Definitionsofrootandstem5.1Root:isthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranaly