跨文化交际整理材料 (2).doc

跨文化交际整理材料1. Communication：(1)Communication is A form of human behavior derived from a need to connect and interact with other human beings. It occurs whenever meaning is attributed to behavior or the residue of behavior. (2)Its components: Message, Sender, Receiver, Channel, Noise, Feedback, Encoding, Decoding. (3)Characteristics: communication is dynamic; irreversible; symbolic; systemic; self-reflective; interactive; complex. (4)Five types of communication: human communication; animal communication; human-animal communication; human-machine communication; machine-to-machine communication. (In summary, under communication, we have human and biological/physical communication; under human communication, we have non-social and social communication; intra-personal in non-social communication while social communication includes interpersonal, organizational, and mass communication. ) 2. Intercultural business communication: (1) IC is the term first used by Edward T. Hall in 1959 and is simply defined as interpersonal communication between members of different cultures. ICBC is defined as communication among individuals or groups from different backgrounds in a business environment.(2)IC的分类：IC includesInternational communication (between nations and governments rather than individuals); Interethnic communication (between people of the same race but different ethnic background) (Tibetan vs. Han); Interracial communication (Afro-American vs. white American) ; Interregional communication: (northerner vs. southerner) (3) 跨文化交际障碍Barriers in Intercultural Communication: a. Avoidance of the unfamiliar疏远陌生; b. Uncertainty reduction减少不确定性; c. Withdrawal回避; d. Stereotyping定势; e. Prejudice偏见; f. Racism种族; e. Misuse of power滥用权力; h. Culture shock文化震惊; i. Ethnocentrism文化优越感.3. Stereotyping: A stereotypes is an overly simplified / generalized way of thinking about a person, group, etc. Anyone can stereotype and can be the target of stereotyping! (课件答案) Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people.4. Prejudice: Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Learned beliefs and values that lead an individual or group of individuals to be biased for or against members of particular groups prior to actual experience of those groups. E.g Residents of ShanghaiRelation between Stereotype and prejudice定势和偏见的区别Both are a stumbling block to ICC. Prejudice usually refers to the negative aspect when a group inherits or generates hostile views about a distinguishable group based on generalizations. These generalizations are invariably derived from inaccurate or incomplete information about the other group.The generalization are called stereotyping.5. Racism: （课本）It refers to the belief that one racial category is innately superior to another. （课件）It is any policy, practice, beliefs or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. It can either be conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional. 6. Culture shock: Cultural shock is precipitated by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. Four stages (U-curve): Honeymoon phase; Culture shock phase/ Depression (horror); Recovery phase; Adjustment; (Acceptance/ Home)7. Ethnocentrism民族优越感: Ethnocentrism is the belief that you own cultural background, including ways of analyzing problems, values, beliefs, language, and verbal and nonverbal communication, is correct. Ethnocentrists believe their culture is the central culture and other cultures are incorrect, defective, or quaint. （The negative impact of ethnocentrism on intercultural communication is obvious: it shapes social sense of identity which is narrow and defensive; it normally involves the perception of members of other cultures in terms of stereotypes; ethnocentric judgments usually involve invidious comparisons that ennoble ones culture while degrading those of others.）8. Culture: Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors. Institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people. (p41) Culture can be classified by three large categories of elements：(1) Artifact; (2) concepts; (3) behavior.Characteristic of Culture ：（1）Culture is not innate; it is learned文化不是先天遗传的而是后天习得的;（2）Culture is transmitted from generation to generation (social heredity)文化是代代相传的; (3)Culture is selective具有选择性; (4)Cultures are interrelated wholes. 文化各要素相关联的; (5)Culture is ethnocentric本民族具有文化优越感的倾向; (6)Culture is subject to change是发展变化的.9.Value 定义以及四个层次：Values are “a conception, explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available modes, means, and ends of action” 文化观念的四个层次：(1)Symbols符号;(2)Heroes英雄;(3)Rituals习惯;（4）Values价值观.(价值观的三个层次：(1)Universal values普遍的价值观; (2)Cultural-specific values某一文化特有的价值观; (3)Peculiar expression or deviations of individuals within cultures文化中的个体所持有的价值观.)10. 3 cultural patterns: Kluckhohn and Strodbecks value orientations about basic values Hofstede-Bond value dimensions about work-related values Halls High-and-Low-context Orientation11. Kluckhohn and Strodbeck identified five orientations : human nature relationship to nature sense of time activity social relationship12. Hofstede and Bond isolated five cultural dimensions about work-related values: Individualism & Collectivism个人主义和集体主义：Individualism indicates the extent to which a society is a loosely knit social framework in which people are supposed to take care of only of themselves and their immediate families. Collectivism emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence. It indicates a tight social framework in which people distinguish between in-groups and out-groups and expect their in-group to look after them. It is believed that individual is the core of western cultural value, while collectivism is the core of Eastern cultural value. Decision making in an individualist culture may be more rapid, the implementation of a change in policy will be perceptibly slower than in a collectivist culture. The individual will go along with what is best for the group with few questions asked. Power distance权力差距：Power distance indicates the extent to which a society accepts the fact thatpower in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally among individuals. (A High Power Distance ranking indicates that inequalities of power and wealth have been allowed to grow within the society. These societies are more likely to accept a hierarchical order. E.g. Mexico, South Korea, India. A Low Power Distance ranking indicates the society de-emphasizes the differences between citizens power and wealth. In these societies equality and opportunity for everyone is stressed. E.g U.S.) Uncertainty avoidance回避不确定性：It indicates the extent to which a society feels threatened by ambiguous situation and tries to avoid them by providing rules, believing in absolute truths and refusing to tolerate deviance. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance: uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity, intolerant with deviance. This creates a rule-oriented society that institutes laws, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the amount of uncertainty. For Example: Greece, Belgium, Portugal, Japan, Chile, Israel, and Spain. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance：Practice counts more than principles; deviance is more easily tolerated. This is reflected in a society that is less rule-oriented, more readily accepts change, and takes more and greater risks. For example: Singapore, Sweden, Denmark, Malaysia Masculinity & Femininity区别：Masculinity indicates the extent to which the dominant values in a society tend towards assertiveness and acquisition of things and away concern for people and the quality of life. Masculinity comes from masculine and implies aggressiveness and assertiveness, while femininity comes from feminine and stresses naturaring, caring attention to peoples feelings and needs. Masculinity: a high degree of gender differentiation, achievement, heroism, aggressiveness, assertiveness, material success. For Example: Japan, Austria, Italy. Femininity: equal gender relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, quality of life. For example: Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.13. Halls High-and Low-Context OrientationLow-context culture & High-context culture区别：Low-context culture: Tends to prefer direct verbal interaction; Tends to understand meanings at one level only; Is generally less proficient reading nonverbal cues; Values individualism; Relies more on logic; Employs linear logic; Saying no directly; Communicates in highly structured messages, provides details, stresses literal meanings, gives authority to written information. High-context culture: Tends to prefer indirect verbal interaction; Tends to understand meanings embedded at many socio-cultural levels; Is generally more proficient n reading nonverbal cues; Values group membership; Relies more on context and feeling; Employs spiral logic; Talks around point, avoids saying no; Communicates in simple, ambiguous, noncontexted messages; understands visual messages readily.High-Context Cultures Low-Context CulturesJapanese Chinese Korean . . American Scandinavian German German-Swiss 14. A language is a symbolic code of communication consisting of a set of sounds (phonetics 语音学) with understood meanings and s set of rules (grammar) for constructing messages. Dialect is the unique pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary we use when speaking. Accent is more specific made of personal discourse characterized by how people articulate certain words using a unique inflection or tone. Argot refers to a secret or covert vocabulary developed by an in-group to keep outsiders from understanding their messages. Jargon refers to a type of code or specialized vocabulary that is shared among knowledgeable in-group members. Slang designates those terms, used in instances of extreme informality, which serve as a means of marking social or linguistic identity. Branding is a phenomenon created in corporate marketing that frequently transcends language differences.15. Linguistics 语言学：the systematic study of language Semantics 语义学 the study of meaning-that is, how words communicate the meaning we intend in our communication. The emphasis in semantics is on the generation of meaning, focusing on a single word. Syntactics 句法学 the study of structure or grammar of a language-the rules for combining words into meaningful sentences. One way to think of syntactics is to consider how the order of the words in a sentence creates a particular meaning. Pragmatics 语用学 the study of how meaning is constructed in relation to receivers, how language is actually used in particular context in language communities. Phonetics 语音学 the study of the sound system of language-how words are pronounced, which units of sounds (phonemes) are meaningful for a specific language, and which sounds are universal. Because different languages use different sounds, it is often difficult for non-native speakers to learn how to pronounce some words.16. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf concluded that language not only serves as a mechanism for communication, but as a guide to social reality. “Language is a reflection of culture, and culture is a reflection of language.” Strong version: Linguistic determination 语言绝对论 Week version: Linguistic relativity 语言相对论17. Connotation & Denotation 内涵意义和概念意义：Denotation: dictionary definition. Most of the time we usually concern denotational meanings.Connotation: extended meanings or associated meanings. Connotational meanings have developed over times. 18. Cooperative Principle 合作原则：quantity maxim (give the right amount of information); quality maxim (try to make your contribution one that is true); relation maxim (be relevant); manner maxim (be perspicuous)19. Comparing Chinese and English Speech Acts: Address Greeting and leaving-taking Invitation and response Compliment and response Apologies and response20. Deductive & Inductive演绎法和归纳法: The deductive pattern: from the general to the specific; (西方交际模式)the inductive pattern: from the specific to the general（东方交际模式）.21. Nonverbal communication 定义、功能：(1)Simply, nonverbal communication refers to communication without the use of words. Nonverbal communication is the study of facial expressions, touch, time, gestures, smell, eye behavior, and so on. 22. Functions of nonverbal communication: (1) Replacing/ substituting (eg. A noisy cafeteria might get you to wave at a friend instead of screaming to get his attention); (2) Regulating (eg. Turn taking); (3) Conveying; (4) Modifying (eg. Loudness and tone of voice); (5) Repeating; (6) Complementing (eg. “Attention please”); (7)Contradicting (When there are contradictions, people tend to believe the verbal messages or nonverbal ones?); (8)Accenting (eg. A well-skilled public speaker might pause before or after an important point in a speech.)23. Cultural impact on nonverbal communication:Body movement: posture, gesture (hand gesture, arm movement), facial expressions (smiling and laughing, showing anger) Eye contact Touch: hand-shaking, hugging and kissing Smell Paralanguage: vocal qualifiers (tone of voice, pitch, stress), vocalization, silence Spatial language：personal space, office space, public space Temporal language: monochromic and polychromic time, punctuality and promptness, time frame24. Paralanguage副语言: Paralanguage lies between verbal and nonverbal communication. It involves sounds but not words. It is related to oral communication. It refers to the rate, pitch, and volume qualities of the voice, which interrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message. R