英语专业毕业论文的写作方法.doc

写作指导 愿我的文档给您带来帮助和快乐！ 英语专业毕业论文的写作方法Introduction: 毕业论文或学士学位论文（thesis）是每个本科生在毕业之前最重要的一项学习任务。写作毕业论文是总结、检验、深化所学专业知识的过程，同时也可以训练学生分析和解决问题的实际能力，从而为毕业后继续学习和运用所学专业知识进行更高层次的研究奠定基础。因此，每个本科生都必须认真对待，努力写好毕业论文。 完成毕业论文，需要一定的专业知识，也需要正确的写作方法。毕业论文或学士论文是一种研究性论文（research paper）。它的语气、格调和格式不同于非正规文体，如技术报告、随笔等。毕业论文也讲究一定的学术性，但其要求与目的不同于在学术期刊上发表的学术论文。毕业论文是一种正规作文，必须遵循正规作文的规范。完成一篇毕业论文，一般要经过选择方向（论题）、确定论文题目、收集资料、研究分析参考资料、整理论据、拟订参考书目、拟订论文提纲、构思、拟写初稿、修改润色、校对和定稿等步骤。1.1选择论题和确定论文题目 选择论题和确定论文题目，应当考虑论题的学术研究价值，并力求有自己的见解，还必须考虑自己的专业水平、写作能力以及资料来源、写作时间等客观因素。 在确定论文题目的过程中，不宜草率从事、急于求成。英语专业涉及的范围很广，包括英语语言、英汉互译、英美文学、英美文化和英语教学法。其中英语语言又包括语法、语音、词汇和修辞等领域。另外，历史研究也是也是一大方向，如英语史、翻译史、文学史等。 选择论题和确定论文题目，应以“小题大做”为原则，其要领是：先从上述范围内选择一个方向，然后逐渐缩小范围.选择论题与确定题目，必须弄明白研究方向、论题、题目之间的关系。研究方向是一个研究领域，范围较大、较泛。论题指论文要论证的命题，而论文题目只是论题的概括。如，英语翻译技巧是一个研究的方向，而论证翻译技巧的性质、用途就可成为一个论题。总之，确定论文题目应当在一个易于操作的小范围里去考虑。因为题目涉及的范围越小，越容易写得全面、深刻，从而使论文更有说服力。另外，每个领域都有各自的具体内容和特点。因此，在考虑具体论题之前，先要了解特定领域的一般性知识，然后逐渐将自己的注意力集中于某个论题。1.2收集资料、分析资料、拟定参考书目从某种意义上说，选择与确定论题的过程首先是收集和阅读资料的过程。资料的来源主要是学校的图书馆和资料室，以及Internet的相关网站。查找、收集资料，必须熟悉掌握查阅资料的有关知识与方法。同时，在查阅资料的过程中应适时地做些记录。记录内容包括：作者名、书名能够、版本、出版单位、出版地点、出版日期和参考资料的页码等。参考资料若出自期刊，则应包括：刊物名称、期刊号、资料所在页码、文章作者、文章标题等。Internet为写作毕业论文提供了极大的方便，但网上充斥着各种各样的信息，须注意甄别是专家权威的东西还是业余爱好者的东西，在引进论文时还须说明是否是专家权威的观点，并须注明出处，以免抄袭之嫌。确定论题之后，就是研究分析资料和拟定参考书目（working bibliography）。写毕业论文需要利用各种参考资料，但写作毕业论文决不仅仅时收集资料，或简单的“剪刀加浆糊”的工作。通常我们收集的资料都会多于实际写进论文里去的资料，论文作者必须对自己收集到的资料加以筛选和分析整理，并结合自己预想的论题，考察研究选定论题的可行性及学术研究价值，从而初步确定论文的题目。1.3构思与拟定提纲确定论题与题目之后，就要围绕论文的中心论点去构思了。构思就是如何如利用事先准备好的资料，去阐释或论证论文的中心论点。因此你必须事实牢记你的论文的写作目的。写论文就是决定用哪些原始资料和如何使用这些原始资料，去实现你的论文的写作目的。无论是采用演绎还是归纳的形式安排资料，都必须议论文的中心论点来贯穿全文。为了更有效的阐述或论证中心论点，应当先有一个易于操作的论文提纲。拟写提纲本身就是一种思考与构思，其过程是对所准备的论据进行分析整理。论据一经整理，它们之间的关联就会显露出来，提纲的雏形也就形成了。粗略的提纲，应在继续分析整理论据的过程中，不断加以调整充实，事先确定的论点也可以做适当的调整、变通。要求按提纲写作为的是增强论文的条理性和逻辑性，以及论文结构的完整性。一篇毕业论文，一般由引言（Introduction）、论文主体（Body）和结语（Conclusion）三大部分构成。引言部分的主要作用是提出论文的中心论点或导入正题。论文主体部分是论证分析。结余部分主要用来总结全文，重申论点。开头和结尾部分可安排一两个段落，而主体部分必须分成多段。 中心论点（thesis）是对一篇论文最集中的概括，既说出了论文的论题是什么，也说出了作者要对论题发表什么意见。论文的每一个段落都是通过提供支持中心论点的详细资料来阐明中心论点的。论点与各段落的关系，犹如一个段落里的句子与主题句（subject sentence）的关系。演绎式（inductively arranged）则最后提出论点，论点还是结语的一个部分。 阐述或论证论点没有固定的方程式。用什么方式最合适，主要取决于论题和文章的目的，像“Modifications to American Democracy During the Next Twenty Years” 这样一个题目，大致有三种写法。第一种主要是提供知识、信息，如：“阐释对当代美国民主提出的种种建议”(“List and explain proposed modifications to contemporary American democracy”）。这种写法只是阐释问题，不作分析，因此适合报告一类论文，甚至篇幅较长的报告。以英语专业论，很适合写英语教学的调查和实验研究。 第二种是在阐释的同时也做出倾向性不太强的分析，如：“最近提出的修改美国民主的建议的意义何在？”(“In what ways are the recent proposals to modify American democracy significant?”)。第三种写法是倾向性强烈的论文，既要提供相关的知识、信息，也要做出细致的分析，作者还要把立论。如：“评修改当代美国民主的建议”(“uate proposed modifications to contemporary American democracy”)。 第三种写法最难，因为立论的论文必须毫不含糊地提出作者自己的观点，而且必须言之成理、令人信服。这就要求作者提出充分的证据，并反驳反面意见。 然而，富有挑战性的论题和题目能是作者更投入，只要付出足够的努力自然会有丰厚的回报。若要毕业论文有新意，有独立的见解，应该用第三种写法。1.4拟稿拟稿即拟写初稿，初稿虽是草稿，但必须全力以赴去写好。在拟稿的过程中，一般要注意以下几个问题： 1.开门见山，即在论文的引言部分提出论点，这是最常用的方法。另外，为了使作者思路显得缜密、中心突出，行文中应适时地重申论文的论点。提出论点要自然，避免机械生硬地提出论点，从而保持论文的完整性。 2.合理安排论文引证的材料。为避免文章显得臃肿，使行文更加流畅，应慎用省略号。引证还要注意适度，即直接引证不宜过多。有些可以用自己的话来该概括。 3.不要遗漏事先准备好引用的论据。引证时须表明出处，以免与你自己的话相混。 4.重视引言和结语（introduction and conclusion）。一篇毕业论文的开头和结尾部分，具有很强的影响力，不可等闲视之。1.4.1引言的写法 引言部分对于引起读者的兴趣至关重要，应写得引人入胜，最主要是一点是让人读后能明白你的论文写什么，让人觉得你的目的明确。引言没有固定的程式，主要取决于论文的对象、论题和写作的方法。下面是几种最基本的方法。1.引语:以两句引语展开讨论，这两句精妙而带煽动性的评论颇能激发读者的兴趣。接着又引用，有助于引向论文的中心。2.回顾历史（Historical review）:有时，读者在不了解相关是历史背景的情况下不能立即抓住你探讨的问题3.回顾论争（Review of a controversy）:回顾过去的争论或论争，是历史性回顾的一种特殊形式。4.从一般到具体（From the general to the specific）5.从具体到一般：掌故、实例（From the specific to the general: anecdote）：以逸事、趣闻开头，是你用来吸引读者注意力最有效的一种方法。6.设问（Question)：作者常常通过提出一个问题或一连串的问题，来吸引读者的注意力。7.开门见山（Statement of thesis):开门见山是最直接的引言方法，即一开头就提出论文论点。1.4.2结语的写法结语部分与引言同等重要，因为给读者留下最后印象的是它。 结语应总结全文，而不应当提出或转移到别的论题上去，也不能草草收场。结语部分要让读者对论文的主要精神和内容加深印象。结语部分的作用是重申论文的论点， 最基本的一点是总结你的论点。总结不是简单的重复，而是归纳正文的内容，具有较强的理论性。切记：结语部分所占的篇幅不宜过长，力求干脆利落。以下是几种常见的结语写法。1）说明论文的意义（Statement of the subjects significance):讨论主体部分所论述的论题的广泛意义，给读者提供更多的理由，从而让他们更明白你的论文的价值。运用这一方法，是从一个具体、特定的范围扩展到一个更广泛的范围。必须从各种意义中挑选，不宜太泛， 应注意突出重点。2）解答与建议（Solution/Recommendation):这种方式适合评论与阐述有争议问题的论文。这种方法的要点是：总结你的结论后，根据你的研究提供一个解决方法。为使你的方法更有说服力，必须经正文部分充分论证后提出。3）引用别人的话（Quotation）：根据文章的论题，引用该领域的一位名人或权威的话来结束论文，是许多人偏爱的方式。引用名人或权威的话可以增加文章的说服力。但如何引用颇有讲究，最重要的是所引用的话必须切合你的论点。4）设问（Questions）：提出问题不仅是使用的开篇方式，也是结束论文的使用方法。但是，开篇提出的问题予以提问结尾的功能不同。开篇提出的问题，是打算在接下来的部分予以解答。但结尾时提出的问题，是留给读着自己去思考。1.5修改、润饰、定稿 初稿写出来之后，任务还没有完成，还必须经过反复修改、润色，才能定稿。初稿写好后，可以立即进行修改，但放一两天再去修改，效果可能更好。这时，你能以一种更冷静、客观的心态去评判你自己的作品。修改时，应特别注意论文的逻辑推理是否严密，还应当注意上下文的衔接，以及漏字、错别字和笔误。另外，必须仔细核查你引用的文字是否有差错，包括作者，页码等。在将初稿交指导老师之前，最好找同学给你朗读一两遍，这样就能更容易的听出论文的语言是否通顺流畅。1.6论文的格式以英文学术论文格式论，有三种流行的格式，即“芝加哥格式”（Chicago Manual, The Chicago Manual of Style)、“现代语言学会格式” （MLA, The Modern Language Association Style）、和“美国心理学会格式”(APA, Publication Manual of the American psychological Association）。Chicago Manual格式，既有一定的权威性，又不限于某个特定学科。因此，人文科学、社会科学以及许多其他专业的本科生和研究生写论文时，均采用Chicago Manual格式。1.5.1引文的格式毕业论文在行文中，往往需要引用别人著作中的原话，或其他的资料。引用方式主要有：直接引用、间接引用以及间接引用与直接引用并用。以引文摆放的位置论，又有单独排列成一段和不单独排列之分。无论采用哪一种格式，引用时必须遵循规范的引证格式。下面我们分别谈谈直接引用和间接引用的格式要求。1.5.1.1直接引用（Direct quotation）：直接引文即一字不差的引用原始资料。在需要再现某个权威的意见、保留原始资料说法，或强调所借用的原始资料的真实性时，实用直接引文。对于有争议的观点，或需要专家意见时，也需要直接引用，因为直接引文能提供权威性。比如，在一篇论述高等教育的学位论文里，你要论证某大学录用学生实行开放政策是为了该地区的经济，那么引用一位著名经济学家或某个本地知名商人的言论就很奏效。如果你想支持你对某个历史潮流的意义的论断，值得注意的是：直接引文应尽量简短。过长的引文容易分散读者的注意力。因此，要舍得割爱，只引用基本部分。如果引文的长度超出半页的篇幅，显得不协调，但又必须引用那么多，可以将引文放在附录部分。1.5.1.2直接引文的摆放直接引文在正文中的摆放主要有两种形式：插入正文或单独排列（Quotations run into the text or set off from the text)。引用的是散文而又不超过40个字，那么应当插入正文中，并用引号引起来，如：Curtiss term the Latin Middle Ages covers a range of Roman legacies, including the share of Rome, of the Roman idea of the state, of the Roman Church, and of Roman culture.1引用的诗而又不超过两个整行，也应当放入正文中去。诗行之间用“/”隔开，符号两边留空；保留原诗中的大写，如下所示：In his Hymn to Intellectual Beauty, Shelley personifies the immaterial, spiritual words: The awful shadow of some unseen Power/Floats though unseen amongst us.另外，无论直接引用的是散文还是诗歌，都应当保持原貌，包括原始资料中的各种标点和符号。1.5.1.3间接引用（Indirect quotation)论文中大多数的引文应是间接引用，或概述原文的主要内容。间接引用的三种格式如下:Chicago Manual格式：Even Einstein recoiled from the implication of quantum mechanics that reality is an illusion.1MLA格式:Even Einstein recoiled from the implication of quantum mechanics that reality is an illusion(Gribbin2).APA格式:Even Einstein recoiled from the implication of quantum mechanics that reality is an illusion（Grbbin,1984,p.2).引文的格式颇为复杂。就拿圆括号里作者姓氏的写法来说，也不止一种。如果作者是两个（或三个）人，则在姓氏之间加上and。注意and之间不加逗号， 如：Among the many facts about language, there stand out language is human, language is thought and activity, and the medium of language is sound (Bollinger and Sears2-3). 如果作者是三个以上，则只需写出第一个作者的姓氏，其余用“et al.”表示，气候再加上页码， 如: (Aiken et al. 288)。如果同时引证同一个作者的几部作品，就需要写出书名。1.5.2注释的格式Chicago Manual采用脚注(footnote)和尾注(endnote)，即在正文中用引文的地方按顺序夹注数码(superscript)。数码通常置于句末的右上方、标点外边，不留空格，不加下划线，不划圈。脚注按对应数码置于每一页的底端，尾注置于正文之后。注释包括作者（编者、译者）姓名、卷数、出版商、出版年代、引文所在页码。重复出现同一作者的同一作品时，只注明作者姓氏和引文所在页码。尾注格式与正文后的“参考书目”格式有两点不同：一是首行缩进5个英文字母的空格，即缩进5格再标明1，2等；其二是作者姓名的写法不同：尾注是名在前，姓氏在后；而参考书目是姓氏在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开。应当尽量减少脚注和尾注，注释的来源出处必须写明。一般而论，注释主要用于下列几种特殊情况：1）补充相关的，但并非必不可少的资料；2）列举供参考的书目；3）详细说明某个程序；4）提供一些数据等。1.5.3参考书目的格式“参考书目”是一篇毕业论文不可或缺的组成部分。准备论文参考书目时，在论文中引用的所有资料的出处都必须注明。一般来说，凡是没有被你引用的数目都不应该列入。每一条目开始写作者的姓，然后是名，按照英语字母的顺序排列；汉语则按照笔画或拼音顺序排列。如果你在同一篇论文中引用相同一个作者的多篇论著，那么你就必须把论著标题按英文字母顺序列出，因为第一条数目已有该作者的姓名，下一条数目只需在下一行开始空八格，加句号后按同一作者论著标题的字母顺序列出即可。每条参考书目从第二行开始要缩进五格，这主要起到醒目的作用。1.5.4论文整体结构与格式一篇论文的整体结构(elements of a research papers) 包括三个部分：正文前部分(the preliminaries, front matter)、正文部分(the text, body) 和正文后部分(reference materials, back matter, or end matter)。有的指导老师要求写出毕业论文的“内容提要”(abstract)。提要的作用是简明扼要地说明你的文章讨论的问题，所研究问题的意义，以及你的研究成果和结论。Slade说: “Because the abstract is not part of the dissertation, it is neither numbered nor counted as a page.” (p.39) 由此看来，按英语的格式并不一定要写出 “abstract”.如果写了“提要”，就应当把它放在“提纲页”。 勤奋是愉快而充实的！ 能够给我们的未来带来无尽的财富和想象！两例：中美文化视野中对个人主义的认同差异The Different Recognitions Towards Individualism Between Chinese and American CultureAbstractThe paper represents a different recognition between Chinese and American people towards individualism. American people regard individualism as “individuality”, while Chinese people think individualism is equivalent to “selfishness”. Different culture backgrounds between China and America result in the different recognitions toward individualism. As a social product and a phenomenon of the culture, right or wrong should not be branded with individualism and as a Marxist, an objective and dialectical method should be used to judge individualism. Only when Chinese people acknowledge individualism in a right, can they remove their misunderstanding towards individualism and the wrong exercise of it. Then after they realize individualism in a right way, they could take advantage of it in the construction of Chinese society and the development of themselves.Key WordsIndividualism; cultural phenomenon; the positive aspect; social product摘要论文阐释了个人主义在中美两国人民的认识中存在的差异，美国人认为个人主义是一种“个性”，而中国人则认为它代表的就是“自私”。产生这种差异的根本原因就在于中美两国拥有不同的文化背景。作为一个社会发展的产物和一种文化现象，个人主义不应该用对或是错来衡量，而作为马克思主义者，就更加应该客观、公正的看待从不同文化当中衍生出来的东西。中国人要正确认识个人主义必须从美国文化当中理解个人主义。只有真正认识、理解了个人主义，才能从根本上消除中国人对个人主义产生的误读以及对个人主义错误的运用。在此之后，也就可以将个人主义中积极合理的一面应用到中国社会的发展中，并以此来完善和发展自己。关键词个人主义；文化现象；积极因素；社会产物；IntroductionThis paper discusses the different recognitions towards individualism between Chinese and American people based on the different cultural background.American people think that individualism stands for personality; it is also an alternative, which shows a person who has self-reliance and self-struggle. It emphasizes on the independence, value, status, and personal right. All of them are sacred and inviolable. America is a multi-culture country, after Columbus discovered this land, people from different places of the world flowed to the new land. Americans have been called rootless nationality, for most people live in America are from other places. During the reign of James I, the Presbyterian majority unsuccessfully attempted to impose their ideas on the established English church at the Hampton Court Conference. The result was mutual disaffection and a persecution of the Puritans, particularly by Archbishop William Laud, that brought about Puritan migration to Europe and America. They hoped to look for freedom and a new world. So when the Europeans on the May Flower stepped on this land, which had no national sentiment that should formed during a long time, the personal interests have been considered much important than anything else. It is a rule to protect ones own interests in a strange place. However, in China, which has a long history of more than 5,000 years, the cultural origins could date back to the primitive society, when Shanding cave people lived and worked together the interests of the collective were sure to be much higher than personal interests were. Therefore, under the influence of the collective the personal interests, which could be considered as individualism, are much looked down upon. The vice influence of individualism is certainly exists, but its positive and reasonable side make America develop to be a powerful country in only 200 years. Though collective interest is above everything, extremely denying the individualism is also not an objective and just way. In China, the positive side of individualism could still play a favorable role. Recently as so many people ignored the good aspect of individualism, right recognitions should be emphasized again. Individualism is a phenomenon with great cultural characteristics, and it cannot be justified only with right or wrong. It should be justified objectively and justly. Only after right recognitions have been accepted, China could gain a brand-new way to develop it and Chinese people could also build up their confidence and promote the reliance of their self-worth. Individualism in AmericaA. The Origin of IndividualismAs to the origin of individualism, different scholars have different recognitions. The concept of individual of Americans rooted in the philosophy in 17th century represented by British philosopher Lock. Lock claimed that the basic unit of the nature is individual, and he presumed that all the individuals fought for their own interests. Individualism firstly appeared in the French Revolution, which created by Saint-Simon camp to express situation of the people in the 19th century, that is rootless, idealess and faithless, and their merciless competition and exploitation. Nevertheless, the much suitable recognition is Renaissance and reformation. Since Renaissance, the attitude towards liberalism has begun to form. The main construction for the liberalism given by Renaissance is humanism and the individualism. When the writer, the artist and the thinker talk about human, they refer to the individual more and more. If Renaissance is the beginning of individualism, the reformation prompts the further development of individualism. In western world, religious play an important role of the individualisms formation. God create human and give the soul to everyone that means He also gives people the meaning of existence and the basic right. Early Reformation affirmed the conscience and judgment of individual, and widened the way for the development of individualism. In addition, the prosecution to the puritans caused them to seek for freedom, independence and democracy in the new land, America. Therefore, immigrants of Europe brought their new thinking, which formed after the Reformation to America, and in this new land, this kind of new thinking began to develop to democracy and individualism. Quite different from the European countries, Feudalism never deeply rooted in America, so during the long history of social practice in America, individualism acquired a definition different from selfish. Future more, the appearance of individualism has nothing to do with somebody or something but with the development of capitalism country, and the rule of Bourgeois morality; the reflection of private ownership of the means of production in people awareness and a kind of cultural phenomenon.B. The Influence of Individualism on American SocietyDuring the prosperous development of capitalism, individualism played a very important role in fighting against Feudal asceticism, Autocracy and religious rule. Therefore, in America, individualism developed to a quite active direction, and showed a positive influence. In the process of transplant form Europe to America, individualism also completes the transformation from negative to positive; from young to mature and from theory to practice. Individualisms success in America shows that the acceptance of individualism in America has something to do with the freedom, the equality and the chance of a society.As we all known, America is a country which quite advocates the law and the system, and American people have a great belief to them. The United States Constitution and the Law provide that the power of the government is from the people and belongs to the people; the power of government is not absolute but restricted by the law. The Declaration of Independence plays a very important role in American history; it emphasizes, “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” Therefore, after the law admitted the individual right, the Americans found the basis to realize their self-worth.There are mainly tow kinds of influences of individualism towards America.First, the slogan of individualism “freedom and equality” really becomes the Great Spirit that inspire, educate and mobilize all the people. Individualism helps America a lot both in the early development and in the Independent War. American people conquer the nature, and develop their national border with the strength of individualism, and they create a great number of wealth for their motherland. The Declaration of Independence also encourages the northern American peoples revolutionary morale. Because of individualism, people have a more active thinking so that they could keep on creating. American society is in changing and developing, for the American people keep on seeking for new things. That is really prompt the development of their society. In addition, individualism help American parents educate their children. America always advocates Individualized Education, and it emphasizes on independence and the ability of self-analysis and problem solving. Therefore, in America, the relationship between parents and children, teachers and children are not the elders to the juniors but friends. After grown-up of the children, they should move out and live without their parents, and they should support their life by themselves, for they have a concept that when one becomes an adult, he should be responsible for himself and support himself with his own ability. That is the independence brought by individualism. Individualism also brings many problems such as the gap between rich and poor become wider and the over liberalization. Though America advocates equality, they only talk about everyone has an equal start which polarization become quite serious. Over liberalization causes many social problems like drug and violence, for people treat individualism as the justified reason for them to allow themselves to degenerate. Overall, nothing could be the alternative for individualism, and it is the core of the American culture.C. American Attitude Towards IndividualismAccording to the meaning of etymology, individualism means individual is a social unit and only individual cannot be divided. Individualism holds opinion that individual is both the basic and the highest unit posing the society, and nothing co