考研笔记：传播学专业英语.docx

Collective behavior refer to social processes and events which do not reflect existing social structure (laws, conventions, and institutions), but which emerge in a spontaneous way. Collective behavior takes place when norms are absent or unclear, or when they contradict each other. Symbolic interactionism：Symbolic Interaction, refers to the patterns of communication, interpretation and adjustment between individuals. Both the verbal and nonverbal responses that a listener then delivers are similarly constructed in expectation of how the original speaker will react. With Symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others. People do not respond to this reality directly, but rather to the social understanding of reality. Behavior is not defined by forces from the environment such as drives, or instincts, but rather by a reflective, socially understood meaning of both the internal and external incentives that are currently presented .Herbert Blumer (1969) set out three basic premises of the perspective:Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things.The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others and the society.These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters. The global village：In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called electronic interdependence: when electronic media replace visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind will move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a tribal base. McLuhans coinage for this new social organization is the global village. Understanding Media,the Extensions of Man：McLuhan proposed that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of studypopularly quoted as the medium is the message. McLuhans insight was that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content delivered over the medium, but by the characteristics of the medium itself. More controversially, he postulated that content had little effect on societyin other words, it did not matter if television broadcasts childrens shows or violent programming, to illustrate one examplethe effect of television on society would be identical. All media are extensions of our human senses, bodies and minds.Hot and cool media：different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one.A movie is thus said by McLuhan to be hot, intensifying one single sense high definition, demanding a viewers attention, and a comic book to be cool and low definition, requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value. Two-step flow of communication：states that media effects are indirectly established through the personal influence of opinion leaders. The majority of people receive much of their information and are influenced by the media secondhand, through the personal influence of opinion leaders. Opinion leaders are those initially exposed to a specific media content, and who interpret it based on their own opinion. They then begin to infiltrate these opinions through the general public who become opinion followers. These opinion leaders gain their influence through more elite media as opposed to mainstream mass media. In this process, social influence is created and adjusted by the ideals and opinions of each specific elite media group, and by these media groups opposing ideals and opinions and in combination with popular mass media sources. Therefore, the leading influence in these opinions is primarily a social persuasion. The two-step flow of communication model hypothesizes that ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders, and from them to a wider population. The two-step theory refined the ability to predict how media messages influence audience behavior and explains why certain media campaigns do not alter audiences attitudes. This hypothesis provided a basis for the multi-step flow theory of mass communication.Opinion leadership：The opinion leader is the agent who is an active media user and who interprets the meaning of media messages or content for lower-end media users. Typically the opinion leader is held in high esteem by those who accept his or her opinions. Merton distinguishes two types of opinion leadership: monomorphic and polymorphic. Typically, opinion leadership is viewed as a monomorphic, domain-specific measure of individual differences, that is, a person that is an opinion leader in one field may be a follower in another field. In contrast, polymorphic opinion leaders are able to influence others in a broad range of domains. Opinion leaders are seen to have more influence than the media for a number of reasons. Opinion leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive. People do not feel they are being tricked into thinking a certain way about something from someone they know. However, the media can be seen as forcing a concept on the public and therefore less influential. While the media can act as a reinforcing agent, opinion leaders have a more changing or determining role in an individuals opinion or action. Opinion leaders are individuals who obtain more media coverage than others and are especially educated on a certain issue. They seek the acceptance of others and are especially motivated to enhance their social status.Media imperialism：is a theory based upon an over-concentration of mass media from larger nations as a significant variable in negatively affecting smaller nations, in which the national identity of smaller nations is lessened or lost due to media homogeneity inherent in mass media from the larger countries. The Media Imperialism debate started in the early 1970s when developing countries began to criticise the control developed countries held over the media. The site for this conflict was UNESCO where the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) movement developed. Supported by the MacBride report, Many Voices, One World, countries such as India, Indonesia, and Egypt argued that the large media companies should have limited access to developing countries. Pseudo-environment：describes mans inability to functionally perceive and accurately interpret the world: “The real environment is altogether too big, too complex, and too fleeting for direct acquaintance”, between people and their environment (reality). That people construct a pseudo-environment that is a subjective, biased, and necessarily abridged mental image of the world; therefore, to a degree, everyones pseudo-environment is a fiction. Hence, people “live in the same world, but think and feel in different ones”. Human behavior is stimulated by the persons pseudo-environment and then is acted upon in the real world. The chapter highlights some of the general implications of the interactions among ones psychology, environment, and the mass communications media. Often, those who know the “real” (true) environment construct a favorable, fictitious pseudo-environment in the public mind to suit his or her private needs. Propaganda is inherently impossible without a barrier of censorship between the event and the public thus, the mass communication media, by their natures as vehicles for informational transmission, are immutably vulnerable to manipulation.Agenda-setting theory describes the ability of the news media to influence the salience of topics on the public agenda. Essentially, the theory states that the more salient a news issue is - in terms of frequency and prominence of coverage - the more important news audiences will regard the issue to be. Bernard Cohen observed that the press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.Spiral of silence：propounded by the German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. Spiral of silence theory describes the process by which one opinion becomes dominant as those who perceive their opinion to be in the minority do not speak up because they fear isolation from society. Threat of Isolation：Spiral of silence begins with the threat of isolation. In order to maintain structure in society, a collective cohesion of its members must be constantly ensured by a sufficient level of agreement on values and goals. Thus, in order to guarantee agreement and maintain social order, society threatens isolation for those individuals who violate the consensus. Fear of Isolation：The fear of isolation is the centrifugal force that accelerates the spiral of silence. Essentially, people fear becoming social isolates and thus take measures to avoid such a consequence. This assumption was primarily based on early experiments in conformity. Willingness to Speak Out：Individuals tend to publicly express their opinions and attitudes when they perceive their view to be dominant or on the rise. Conversely, when individuals perceive that their opinion is less popular or losing popularity, they are less likely to voice it in public. The tendency of the one to speak up and the other to be silent starts off a spiraling process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the dominant one. Over time, these changing perceptions establish one opinion as predominant one and they change from the liquid state to a solid norm. Knowledge gap hypothesis：The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis explains that knowledge, like other forms of wealth, is often differentially distributed throughout a social system. Specifically, the hypothesis predicts that “as the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information faster than lower socioeconomic-status population segments so that the gap in knowledge between the two tends to increase rather than decrease”Cultural studies：Cultural studies is an academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism. Characteristically interdisciplinary, cultural studies provides a reflexive network of intellectuals attempting to situate the forces constructing our daily lives. It concerns the political dynamics of contemporary culture, as well as its historical foundations, conflicts and defining traits. Researchers concentrate on how a particular medium or message relates to ideology, social class, nationality, ethnicity, sexuality and/or gender, rather than investigating a particular culture or area of the world.Cultivation theory：Cultivation theory is a social theory which examines the long-term effects of television. Cultivation theory in its most basic form, then, suggests that exposure to television, over time, subtly cultivates viewers perceptions of reality. Gerbner and Gross say television is a medium of the socialization of most people into standardized roles and behaviors. Its function is in a word, enculturationGerbners basic prediction was that heavy TV viewers would be more likely than light viewers to see the social world as resembling the world depicted on TV. Stated most simply, the central hypothesis explored in cultivation research is that those who spend more time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that reflect the most common and recurrent messages of the television world, compared with people who watch less television, but are otherwise comparable in terms of important demographic characteristics. Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing the flow of information between an organization and its publics. Public relations provides an organization or individual exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment. Their aim is often to persuade the public, investors, partners, employees and other stakeholders to maintain a certain point of view about the company, its leadership, products or of political decisions. Four steps are necessary for public relations to accomplish its goals: Identifying Existing Relationships; Evaluate the Relationships; Design Policies to Improve the Relationships; Implement the Policies.Six normative theories of media purposes:Authoritarian theory,Free Press theory, Social Responsibility theory, Soviet theory, Development theory, Democratic-participant theory.Gutenbergs impact cannot be overstated. The duplicative power of movable type put the written word into wide circulation and fueled quantum increases in literacy.Uses and Gratifications Theory： is an approach to understanding why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approach to understanding mass communication.The driving question of UGT is:Whydo people use media and what do they use them for? UGT discusses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy given needs and allow one to enhance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions / companionship, diversion, or escape. It assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audience has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and integrating media into their own lives. UGT holds that audiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information sources for viewers gratification. Gatekeeper：referring to individuals who decide whether a given message will be distributed by amass medium. A newseditorselects stories for publication based on his or her organizations specific criteria, e.g., importance and relevance to their readership.Cultural Studies：Characteristically interdisciplinary, cultural studies is an academic discipline aiding cultural researchers who theorize about the forces from which the whole of humankind construct their daily lives. Distinct from the breadth, objective and methodology ofcultural anthropologyandethnic studies, cultural studies is focussed upon the political dynamics of contemporary culture and its historical foundations, conflicts and defining traits. Researchers concentrate on how a particularmediumormessagerelates to ideology,social class,nationality,ethnicity,sexualityand/orgender, rather than providing an encyclopedic identification, categorization or definition of a particular culture or area of the world.The looking-glass self：Other peoples views build, change and maintain our self-image; thus, there is aninteractionbetween how we see ourselves and how others see us. According to Cooley (1902), in his workHuman Nature and the Social Order, his looking-glass self involved three steps. A self-idea of this sort seems to have three principal elements: the imagination of our appearance to the other person; the imagination of his judgment of that appearance, and some sort of self-feeling, such as pride or mortification.Primary and secondary groups：Aprimary groupis typically a smallsocial groupwhose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by members concern for one another, in shared activities andculture. Examples include family, childhood friends, and highly influential social groups.Primary groups play an important role in the development ofpersonal identity. A primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit items, such as love, caring, concern, animosity, support, etc. Relationships formed in primary groups are often long-lasting and goals in themselves. They also are often psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and provide a source of support. People in asecondary groupinteract on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are temporary rather than long lasting. Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, peoples roles are more interchangeable. A secondary group is one you have chosen to be a part of. They are based on interests and activities. They are where m