《英语写作基础教程》讲义.doc

英语写作基础教程讲义Chapter 1 Using Proper WordsChoice of wordsbuild up a large vocabularythe recognition vocabularythe active vocabulary2. Approaches to the building up a vocabularyLearning words from a word-list or from a dictionary.(2) Learning words from speech and writing (context)E.g. KillHe killed the man.He killed the dog.They killed the proposal.Please kill the engine.She is dressed to kill.You are killing me.She killed her child with kindness.He took a snack to kill his hungry.He killed every day at the park.He killed himself with overworkHe killed the spirit of the group.The news killed their hope.These flowers kill easily.He killed three bottle of Whisky in a week.Kill ones appetiteKill peaceKill the moodKill marriageII. Using words correctly1.overcome Chinglish2. Beware of archaisms, obsolete words, anachronisms and newly-coined wordsWords or meaning of words which are no longer in common used but occur in special text (e.g. Religious works) and poetry are called archaic.Words or meaning which have gone out of use altogether are called obsolete.Words that are inappropriate for the time about which one is writing are called anachronisms3.Avoid slangChapter 2 Make Correct and Effective Sentences1. Basic elements of a sentence 2. what is a sentence? 3. Typical English sentence pattern: Subject +predicate II. Characteristics of an Effective Sentence1 Correctness1. Sentence fragment A grammatically complete sentence has a verb with its subject. Structurally it must be a independent unit, capable of standing alone. Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause, such as phrase clause, appositives and other such group of words, when any of them is written and punctuated as a sentence , it is called sentence fragment. Below are some examples with the fragments:Fragment (phrase or dependent clause) Possible Revision Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isnt working out too well.I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isnt working out too well.The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we believe the proposed ammendments should be passed.Fragment-like sentencesAs exclamations oh! Nonsense! Well done! What a day! What a pity! How kind of you! George in Beijing ? Susan a singer?In dialogue A: how about this? B: very good! A: your name and your address, please. B: all right , here1. A: where to? 2. B: this way, please. 3. A: what then? 4. B: nothing. As transitions And a final instance To return from our digression Now, a few more words about the meeting today.1. Run-on sentence A run-on sentence consists of two or more main clauses that are run together without proper punctuation. Sometimes even sentences which are technically correct are easier to read if they are made into shorter sentences. We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone so people can understand us. But when we write, no one can hear us, so sometimes we must break our sentences into shorter units so that they do not sound run-on. Incorrect: The boy showed us his tickets someone gave them to him. Correct: The boy showed us his tickets. Someone gave them to him. A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a fused sentence) has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected.Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances*:When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was said in the prior independent clause: This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying right away.(We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A semicolon might also work there.) When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression (conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless. Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges, however, hes sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty bakery.(Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a period and started a new sentence or a semicolon.) When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects it to the first independent clause. This computer doesnt make sense to me, it came without a manual. (Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this is a run-on sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.) Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already, this proves my point about American computer manufacturers. Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected a run-on. Use a period to cure this sentence. 1. Comma splice Comma splices join two complete sentences with a comma. E.g. Joey went to the grocery store, he needed to buy eggs for supper.This sentence is incorrect because “Joey went to the grocery store” and “he needed to buy eggs for supper” are both complete sentences. A comma alone cannot join two sentences. There are five main methods of fixing commas splices: (1) We can separate the two clauses into two sentences by replacing the comma with a period.Joey went to the grocery story. He needed to buy eggs for supper.(2) We can replace the comma with a semi-colon.Joey went to the grocery store; he needed to buy eggs for supper.(3) We can replace the comma with a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, yet, nor, or so). Joey went to the grocery store, for he needed to buy eggs for supper.(4) We can replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., after, although, before, unless, as, because, even though, if, since, until, when, while). Joey went to the store because he needed to buy eggs for supper.(5) Replace the comma with a semi-colon and transitional word (e.g., however, moreover, on the other hand, nevertheless, instead, also, therefore, consequently, otherwise, as a result). Joey did not go to the store; as a result, he needed to buy eggs for supper. 1. Unity A sentence should express a single complete idea, no more, no less. If it contains too much, then the sentence becomes confusing . If it contains too little, then the idea in it is incomplete1. Chopped-up sentences2. fused sentences3. wordinessIII. Clarity1. Clarity requires that a sentence should be written with its meaning unmistakably clear. 2. misunderstanding is often caused by: 3. The position of modifiers (2) Reference of person(3) Vague ComparisonIV. Coherence1. Coherence requires that the parts of a sentence are so arranged that they stick together, and that the ideas progress in a logical sequence. (1) Parallelism (2) ConsistencyV. Emphasis: emphasis is the means by which you give desired force to your writing(1) positioning for emphasis(2).use of the appropriate voice for verbs(3) Climatic order it is the order that goes from the least important to the most important or that goes from the general to the specific.(4) rhetorical question(5) The balanced sentenceVI. The kinds of sentences1. GrammaticallyIn structure: (1) a simple sentence (2) a compound sentence (3) a complex sentence (4) a compound-complex sentenceIn function: (1) declarative (2) interrogative (3) imperative (4) exclamatoryRhetorically:Loose SentencePeriodic sentenceThe balance sentenceThe cumulative sentenceThe anticlimactic sentenceRhetorical questionA. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory SentencesAccording to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory. A declarative sentence makes an assertion or a statement. An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or emotion, such as surprise, pain, or joy.B. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex SentencesAccording to their structure, sentences are simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.SIMPLE SENTENCEA simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverb. Short simple sentences are usually emphatic; they have special clarity and provide variety when used with longer sentences.e.g. 1. He is a good student.2. Would you tell the way to the Astor Hotel?3. Do not disturb your brother!4. When did you join the club?5. What a lovely girl she is!COMPOUND SENTENCEA compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, for, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one in orderly sequence.e.g. 1. The heavy rain started suddenly, so we stopped planting the trees.2. Jack wanted to go swimming, but his wife wanted to go shopping.3. Her son studies History; her daughter majors in Chemistry.COMPLEX SENTENCEA complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinate clauses.e.g. 1. The government banned the high-blood-pressure pills because they produced side effects. 2. Although the shop advertised same-day service, my car was not ready for three days. 3. These apple trees, which my father planted three years ago, have not borne any fruit.COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCEA compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clausea combination of a compound and a complex sentence.e.g. 1. After I returned to school following a long illness, the math teacher gave me make-up work, but the history teacher made me drop her course. 2. When the power line snapped, Tom was listening to the stereo, and Teresa was reading in bed. 3. Lisa disliked walking home from the bus stop, because the street had no overhead light and it was lined with abandoned buildings.C. Loose and Periodic SentencesA loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it. Compare:1. She was offered a professional contract after winning the Olympic gold medal for figure skating, according to newspaper reports.2. According to newspaper reports, after winning the Olympic gold medal for figure skating, she was offered a professional contract. The main idea of both sentences is the fact that she was offered a professional contract. This idea is put at the beginning of the first sentence and at the end of the second, thus making one a loose sentence and the other a periodic one. Besides, the first part of the first sentence is complete in structure, but that of the second are only prepositional phrases and cannot be called a sentence without the second part. Loose sentences are easier, simpler, more natural and direct; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.D. Short and Long SentencesShort sentences are usually emphatic, whereas long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.The following passage, which describes how a man saved a drowning girl, makes good use of short sentences.He crouched a little, spreading his hand under the water and moving them round, trying to feel for her. The dead cold pond swayed upon his chest. He moved again, a little deeper, and again, with his hands underneath, he felt all around under the water. And he touched her clothing. But it evaded his fingers. He made a desperate effort to grasp itHe laid her down on the bank. She was quite unconscious and running with water. He made the water come from her mouth, he worked to restore her. He did not have to work very long before he could feel the breathing begin again in her; she was breathing naturally. He worked a little longer. He could feel her live beneath his hands; she was coming back. He wiped her face, wrapped her in his overcoat, looked round into the dim, dark gray world, then lift her and staggered down the bank and across the fields.-D. H. LawrenceIn contrast to short sentences, long sentences are particularly useful for presenting a set of complex, interlocking ideas. They are common in legal, political and theoretical writing, which depends on modification for accuracy. In fiction long sentences are sometimes used to describe a person, a thing or a scene.Mrs. Chalmers was kind of fat and her hair was pretty blond and her complexion was soft and pink and she always looked as though she had been in the beauty parlor all afternoon. She always said “My, youre getting to be a big boy” to Peter when she met him in the elevator, in a soft voice, as though she was just about to laugh. She must have said that fifty times by now. She had a good, strong smell of perfume on her all the time, too.Mr. Chalmers wore pince-nez glasses most of the time and he was getting bald and he worked late at his office a good many evenings of the week. When he met Peter in the elevator he would say, “Its getting colder,” or “Its getting warmer,” and that was all, so Peter had no opinion about him, except that he looked like the principal of a school.But now Mrs. Chalmers was on her knees in the vestibule and her dress was torn and she was crying and there were black streaks on her cheeks and she didnt look as though shed just come from the beauty parlor. And Mr. Chalmers wasnt wearing a jacket and he didnt have his glasses on and what hair he had was mussed all over his head and he was leaning against the Early American wallpaper making this animal noise, and he had a big, heavy pistol in his hand and he was pointing it right at Mrs. Chalmers.-Irwin ShawAlthough series of short and long sentences can both be effective in individual situations, frequent alternation in sentence length characterize much memorable writing. After one or more long sentences that express complex ideas or images, the pitch of a short sentence can be refreshing. Look at the following example:We are now so easily misled by vision. Most of the things before our eyes are plainly there, not mistakable for other things except for the illusions created by professional magicians and, sometimes, the look of the light of downtown New York against a sky so black as to make it seem a near view of eternity. Our eyes are not easy to fool.Similarly, a long sentence that follows a series of short ones can serve as a climax or summing-up that relaxes the tension or fulfills that expectation created by the series, giving readers a sense of completion. Here is a good example:We now have, as a result of modern means of communication, hundreds of words flung at us daily. We are constantly being talked at, by teachers, preachers, salesmen, public officials, and motion-picture sound tracks. The cries of advertisers pursue us into our very home, thanks to the TVand in some houses the TV is never turned off from morning to night. Daily the newsboy brings us, in large cities, from thirty to fifty enormous pages of print, and almost three times that amount on Sunday. We go out and get more words at bookstores and libraries. Words fill our lives.VII. sentence varietyChapter 3 Developing ParagraphsChapter 3 Developing Paragraphs1. Basic structure of paragraphs Topic sentence: It states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one or two areas that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called the Controlling idea. Supporting sentences: It develops the topic sentence. That is, they explain the topic sentence by giving reasons. Some of the supporting sentences that explain the topic sentences about gold are. Concluding sentence: It signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important point to remember. E.g.There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in th