语言学教程英汉对照.doc

LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.A. Language is a system A basic observation is that each language contains two systems, a system of sound and a system of meaning. B. Language is arbitraryThe relation between expression and content is not natural but conventional. And this conventional relation varies from language to language. e.g. It is called a “老鼠” in Chinese, while a “rat” or “mouse” in EnglishC. Language is vocalThe primary medium of language is sound rather than word. written forms came much later than the spoken forms; we speak more everyday; we learn to speak first. D. Language is symbolic 象征性的Language is symbolic in the sense that all the sounds people produce and the ideas, concepts, objects, etc. that these sounds can refer to are bounded up by convention. 惯例Linguistic units are conventional signs. E. Language is human-specific Language is possessed only by human beings, other communication systems as possessed by animals or many other life forms are not languages, i.e. they do not manifest such features as the so-called design features as possessed by human language.F. Language is for communicationThe main and primary function of language is to communicate. People say things to each other to express their communicational needs, and language functions to communicate general attitudes toward life and others. 2. Design features of language(1) Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meaning and sound. (2) Duality：双重性language is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of words.(3) Creativity：创造性Language is creative in the sense that users can understand and create sentences they have never heard before. (4) Displacement：移位性language can be used to communicate about things that are not present in our immediate communicational context. （5）Cultural transmission:文化传播the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation. （6）Interchangeability交换性any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of language（1）Informative信息功能The use of language to record facts, to state what things are like, and to exchange information.（2）Interpersonal 人际功能The most important sociological use of language, which serves to establish and maintain peoples status in a society. （3）Performative施为功能Language can be used to do things, (Austin and Searl)to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people. （4）Emotive情感功能Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker. （5）Phatic communion寒暄功能Ritual exchanges, exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.（6）Recreational 娱乐功能the use of language to have fun. （7）Metalingual元功能Language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages. 4. four principles for studying linguistics:（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性（2）Consistency一致性（3）Economy经济性（4）Objectiveness客观性5. Main branches of linguisticssound:phonetics语音学 phonology音系学form:morphology形态学 syntax句法学meaning：semantics语义学 pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学 Applied linguistics应用语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学 Neurolinguistics神经语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算机语言学6. Important distinctions（1）Descriptive 描述性If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use（2）prescriptive规定性If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using languageModern linguistics is mostly descriptive（3）Synchronic共时性It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history（4）Diachronic 共时性It refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .（5）Langue言语 It refers to the speakers understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks. （6）Parole语言It refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract, parole is concreteLangue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person, from situation tosituation. （7）competence 能力It refers to an ideal speakers knowledge of the underlying 潜在的system of rules in a language. （8）performance 实行It refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context. Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Speech communication involves three steps: speech production 产出speech transmission 传播speech perception 感知(1) Segment语段a linguistic unit in any sequence 顺序which may be isolated from the rest of the sequenceno direct correspondence can be established between spelling and pronunciation. (2)Divergence分化the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming less like each other. 2. IPA: the International Phonetic Association3.Consonants辅音28The sounds in the production 生成of which there is an obstruction阻碍 of the air-stream气流 at some point of the vocal tract 声道Manners of articulation: 发音方式(1) Stop 爆破音：p, b, k, g, t, d(2) Nasal 鼻音:m, n, (3) Fricative摩擦音：f, v , s, z , h(4) Approximant 浊音：r, j, w (5) Lateral 无擦通音： l (6) Affricate 塞擦音：4.Place of articulation:发音部位(1)Bilabial双唇音：p, b, m, w (2)Labiodental唇齿音：f, v (3)Dental齿音： , (4)Alveolar齿龈音：t, d, n, s, z, l, r(5)Post alveolar齿槽音：, (6)Retroflex卷舌音： r (7)Palatal上颚音: j (8)Velar:软腭音： k, g, (9)Uvular小舌音 (10)pharyngeal喉音 (11)glottal声门音Consonants can be described by the following three criteria: voicing (whether a consonant is voiceless or voiced), place of articulation, manner of articulation. e.g. p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stop f voiceless labiodental fricative5.vowels元音the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstructionThe vowels are usually described with reference to the following four criteria: height; position raised; tenseness (length); lip-rounding e.g. i: high front tense unrounded vowel u high back lax rounded vowel mid central lax unrounded vowel6. Coarticulation协同发音overlapping of adjacent articulations (1)anticipatory coarticulation:预期协同发音 e.g. team lamb(2)persevarative coarticulation:持续协同发音 e.g. map meatthe sound displaying theinfluence of the preceding sound 7. Nasalization鼻音化the vowel acquiring some quality of the of the following nasal sound 8. Phoneme:音素 the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. 9. Allophones音位变体Coarticulation is the phonetic term for the phonological term assimilation.10. The main suprasegmental features 超音特征Syllable音节, tone音调, intonation语调, stress重读.Intonation :It refers to the change of pitch at sentence level.Tone:It refers to the Change of pitch of individual syllables. Chinese is a typical tone language. 11. The syllable structure (C)C)C) V (C)C)C)C)A syllable usually consists of three part: onset, the peak or rhyme and the coda. The vowels within the rime is the nucleus. 12. Morpheme:词素 the smallest meaningful unit in a language.Chapter 4 From word to text1. Syntactic relations 句法关系 language as “a system of signs”, each of which consists of two indispensable 不可缺少的parts: signifier (sound image) and signified (concept).Syntagmatic relation: 组合关系relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc. (also called horizontal or chain relation)3. Paradigmatic relation聚合关系specifically between an individual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence. (also called vertical or choice relation) Grammatical constructions refer to any syntactic constructs that have certain syntactic functions.4. Immediate constituents a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.5. IC Analysis: the way of analyzing a construction into its immediate constituents.6. Other shortened form of different phrases or words are as follows: N = noun A = adjective P = preposition AP = adjective phrase V = verb PP = preposition phrase Det = determiner 限定词 art. S = clause adv = adverb conj = conjuction7. Three ways of IC Analysis:(a) bracketing (b) labeled tree diagram (c) Tree diagram8. the substitutability: 替代性whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure still remains the same.9. Endocentric and exocentric constructions（1）Endocentric construction 向心结构It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence相等, to one of its constituents, which servers as the centre, or head, of the whole. e.g. poor boy the little match girl will have finished the book on the shelf really very lateTypical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. The endocentric constructions can be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate construction 主从结构and coordinate construction 并列结构 . Subordinate construction: It is one in which only one head is dominant and the other constituents dependent. Coordinate construction:It refers to be all equal in syntactic status, they are independent of each other（2）Exocentric construction:离心结构 a group of syntactically related words where none of them is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group The exocentric constructions are usually basic sentences, prepositional phrases, predicate (predicate + object)动宾关系 and connective(be + complement) constructions.10. The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules as follows： S: NP + VP VP: V + NP NP: Det + N Det: the, a, etc. N: man, ball, etc. V: hit, take, etcLanguage can be seen as consisting of three parts: syntax句法学, semantics语义学 and phonology 音系学. 11. Recursiveness:递归性It is a phenomenon in which there is no limit to the number of embedding or conjoining one linguistic unit to another unit. ex: Xiao Lins teacher Xiao Lins teachers husband Xiao Lins teachers husbands parents Xiao Lins teachers husbands parents friend .12. Conjoining: 连接It refers to a construction where one clause is conjoined with another. 并列句 Ex: a. John bought a hat. b. Johns wife bought a bag. c. John bought a hat and his wife bought a bag.13. Embedding: 嵌入It refers to the process in which a clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. 从句Ex: a. I saw the man. b. The man visited you last year. c. I saw the man who had visited you last year.The sentences can be linked either hypotactically or paratactically.Chapter 5 Meaning1.What is semantics?语义学Specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. 2.Meanings of MEANINGone difficulty in the study of MEANING is that the term “meaning” itself has different meanings.- intention- inference- a translation3.Kinds of meaning（1）The traditional approach 通用方法（2）The pragmatic approach 务实方法（3）The functional approach: 功能法4.Seven types of meaning by Leech(1)Conceptual meaning 概念 A word or phrase can be used to express or evoke a state of mind which is cognitive, in this case the word or phrase expresses conceptual meaning.Conceptual meaning is central.5.Distinctions between denotation and connotation:(1)denotation: 外延 It concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes(2)connotation: 内涵 It refers to the properties of the entity a word denotes Ex: human statesman politiciandenotation any person person who takes up politics connotation biped, commendatory derogatory featherless, rational Associative meaning 联想(2) Connotative meaning 内涵 What is implied apart from what is explicitly named or described. It is the subsidiary meaning of a word, usually associated with the nature or properties the word denotes. e.g. politician and statesman have different connotative meanings. (3) Social meaning 社会 What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. E.g.Good morning, sir, and Your honor.(4) Affective meaning 情感 refers to the emotional connotation attached to utterances E.g.vagrant vs. homeless. (5) Reflected meaning 反映 What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. e.g. The woods are lovely, dark, and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.(6) Collocative meaning 搭配 What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. e.g. black tea vs. black coffee; a strong horse vs. a strong nation. (7)Thematic meaning 主题What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.e.g. Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore. Sense refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations. 6. Word sense relations (1)Synonymy同义词 It refers to the sameness sense relations between words. Some semanticians maintain that there are no real synonyms, that is, no two words have exactly the same meaning. 7. Five types of synonyms:i. Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词- synonyms used in different regional dialects British English American English lift elevator luggage baggage lorry truck petrol gasoline flat apartment windscreen windshield torch flashlightii. Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词- synonyms differing in styleEx: Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent Start, begin, commence Kid, child, offspring Kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decreaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 不同的同义词在感情或评价的意义Ex: collaborator: a person who helps another（劳经）合作者 accomplice: a pe