英汉常用修辞对比研究 --毕业论文.doc

【标题】英汉常用修辞对比研究 【作者】张泽英 【关键词】修辞；对比；对偶；暗喻；委婉语 【指导老师】廖东红 【专业】英语 【正文】I. IntroductionThe study of figures of speech takes an important part in the study of rhetoric, so it is significant to make a careful study of figures of speech. The history of studying figures of speech can be traced back to the first time rhetoric was researched by Aristotle, and many scholars after him had brilliant expositions on figures of speech.Figures of speech are very important in language using, and it is hard to find an article without using figures of speech wherever in spoken language or in written language. It is said that grammar is the law of language, considered as language; rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought; grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing.1 The quality of the expression is directly influenced by that of using figures of speech.In this paper the English and Chinese figures of speech are discussed by comparative method. Three frequently used English figures of speech and their corresponding Chinese figures of speech are studied. The comparative study is helpful to understand the mode of thinking, social values, moral concepts, and cultural traditions in English-speaking country, and improve our expressing ability.II. The Definition and Classification of Figures of SpeechBefore we contrastive study the Figures of speech between in English and Chinese, we must have a better understanding about English and Chinese figures of Speech respectively. Comparing their definitions and classifications is the first step to understand them.A. The Definition of Figures of speech in English and ChineseFigures of speech are also called“rhetorical figures” or“figures of rhetoric”. The original meaning of“figure” is“the form of anything in outline; appearance; a shape.”2 In the ancient western rhetoric, the basic meaning of figures of speech is“the use of a figurative word or expression(mainly substitute the name of one thing).”3Although there is not an acknowledged definition, we can still get a clear understanding of rhetorical figures from the existent definitions and the language facts. The function of rhetorical figures lies in the effect of expression, and it is mainly based on the theory of substitution and the theory of deviation.In Chinese, figures of speech are called“Xiu Cige”(修辞格) or“Ci Ge”(辞格). The linguistics volume of Ci Hai辞海?语言学分册defines Xiu Cige as：Xiu Cige is all kinds of active rhetoric patterns which make what is to be expressed vivid, concrete and empathized by means of various kinds of active techniques of expression according to the variety of situation.(修辞格是积极修辞的各种格式，既是指积极地随情应景地运用各种表现手法，极尽语言文字的一切可能性，使所说所写呈现出形象性、具体性和体验性).4From this definition we can find that Chinese figures of speech are broader and more exoteric. English figures of speech focus on the language forms and use certain forms to express the rhetorical effect; Chinese figures of speech stress the language function to express the rhetorical effect. However, they have the same function to achieve the certain rhetoric effect.B. The Classifications of English and Chinese Figures of SpeechThere are two popular classifications of English figures of speech:(1) The well-known English linguist G. N.Leech classifies figures into two types, syntagmatic figures and paradigmatic figures.(2) Lanham, in his A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms, classifies 32 traditional figures into three types 1) phonetic figures of speech, 2) lexical figures of speech, and 3) syntactical figures of speech.In Chinese, the classification of rhetorical figures just rose from last century. In our ancient classical works, there were many excellent accounts about a certain specific rhetorical figure, while the systematical description of rhetorical figures and their classification were rare.Tang Yue first mentioned the name“xiu cige”(修辞格)according to English figures of speech and also classified the 27 Chinese figures into 5 classes, 1) according to comparison, 2) according to association, 3) according to imagination, 4) according to flection, 5) according to repetition.Later on Yu Lisan classifies both English and Chinese rhetorical figures into three classes in his The Comparison and Translation between English and Chinese Rhetorical Figures: lexical rhetorical figures, syntactical rhetorical figures and phonetic rhetorical figures.Different classifications are for different purposes, some for the purpose of writing, some for the purpose of comparison between English and Chinese, some for the purpose of cognitive study. The fact is that whatever aspect or purpose used for classification, the figures usually concern form and content, or structure and meaning. In this paper we study figures of speech for the purpose of comparative study between English and Chinese, so our classification should serve this purpose.III. Contrastive Analyzing of Some Frequently Used Figure of Speech between English and ChineseThere are so many kinds of figures of speech, it is impossible to compare all of then. Therefore in this paper, just three figures of speech can be compared. They are the most frequently used in English and Chinese.A. Antithesis and Dui ouAntithesis and dui ou, the two acknowledged similar figures of speech, both are important literary and poetic forms for thousands of years in western and Chinese history, and both have ingrained in their users minds developing from patterns of language into established patterns of thought. The comparative study on antithesis and diu ou could help reader to have a good knowledge about them. 1. Antithesis in EnglishAntithesis is from the Greek word“antithenai”-“anti” means“against”, and“thenai” means“placement”.5 Antithesis is common in rhetoric, which gives the contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences. The feature of this figure can be understood from its definition.Antithesis-the rhetorical opposing or contrasting of ideas by means of grammatically paralleled arrangements of words, clauses, or sentences(as action, not words or they promised freedom and provided slavery); broadly: a balanced contrast formed by a pair or several pairs of objects or concepts, each member in a pair being the opposite of the other in essence or in particulars.6For example:(1) Everything is good when new, but friends when old.-English proverbFrom the definition, two characteristics of antithesis can be concluded: opposite or contrastive ideas or thoughts, and paralleled structure. Using the antonyms and couple words, it is the main way to express the contrast of ideas. And the paralleled structure can appear on word level, phrase level, clause level and sentence level. Anyway it is a kind of contrast. According to the contrastive objects, antithesis is often classified into two patterns:(a) Contrasting the two aspects of one thingFor example:(2) It is the best of times, it is the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way. Charles Dickens: A Tale Of Two Cities)(b) Contrasting two thingsFor example:(3) Easy come, easy go.-English proverb2. Dui ou in ChineseIn Chinese we have a similar figure of speech-dui ou(对偶). It is a very old form in Chinese; it is the main way for Chinese to write poetry and to learn language. It is also called“dui zhang”(对仗),“dui zi”(对子),“dui lian”(对联).“Dui” means a couple, and“ou” means two, so it focuses on making it in pairs.The definition of dui ou is“The use of a pair sentences with the equal words, and the same sentence structure expresses the same, related or opposing ideas and thoughts.”7(用一对字数相等，结构相同的语句来表达相同，相关，相反的意思) For example:(4) 白日依山尽，黄河入海流。欲穷千里目，更上一层楼。王之涣：登鹳雀楼Three points are involved in the definition:(a) the word number should be equal;(b) the sentence structure should be the same;(c) it can express the same, related and opposing ideas and thoughts.Three are the basic requirements for dui ou. Actually it used to be very strict to write“dui ou ju”(对偶句).Except the three points, there are still other strict rules, such as, the requirement of tone(平仄相对), the avoidance of the repetition of the same word.According to the relationship of the two parts of dui ou, it can be classified into three types-zheng dui(正对),fan dui(反对)，and chuan dui(串对).(a) Zheng dui-expressing the same or similar ideas For example:(5)金沙水拍云崖暖,大渡桥横铁索寒。毛泽东：七律?长征(6)破帽遮颜过闹市,漏船载酒泛中流。鲁迅：自嘲(b) Fan dui-expressing the opposite ideas For example:(7)虚心使人进步，骄傲使人落后。毛泽东：改造我们的学习(8)横眉冷对千夫指，俯首甘为孺子牛。鲁迅：自嘲(c) Chuan dui-expressing related ideas For example:(9)山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村。陆游：游山西村(10)风声、雨声、读书声，声声入耳；家事、国事、天下事，事事关心。北宋东林书院对联 3. The Similarities and Differences between Antithesis and Dui ouAccording to the above comparison, the similarities and differences between antithesis and dui ou are following:the similarities are:1) both antithesis and dui ou are syntactical rhetorical figures;2) both antithesis and dui ou use the paralleled structures;3) both antithesis and dui ou can express the opposing ideas;4) both antithesis and dui ou are good at giving strength, adding vividness and appealing to emotion.the differences are:1) antithesis only expresses the opposing ideas; dui ou has three types: zheng dui, fan dui, and chuan dui. So antithesis cannot express zheng dui and chuan dui;2) antithes is appears in a simple sentence, compound sentence, and two coordinate sentences, but dui ou appears only in two coordinate sentences;3) dui ou is only related to two language items, but antithesis has no such limitation;4) dui ou two language items have the same words, without omission; antithesis has no such strict rule.B. MetaphorMetaphor is the most important and common figure of speech in language. In our daily life, many common words are metaphors, just like“skyscraper”,“mouth of the river”,“stone-faced” and etc., which is believed to make communication vivid.1. Metaphor in EnglishThe word“metaphor” comes from the Greek“metaphora”, which literally means totransfer orconvey. The definition of the Collin English Language Dictionary is:“An imaginative way of describing some thing, by referring to something else which has the qualities that you are trying to express.”That is to say that a metaphor is an implied and imaginative compares on between two things. These two things are the two main parts of metaphor: the tenor and the vehicle.The tenor is the subject to which the metaphor is applied; the vehicle is the metaphorical term through which the tenor is applied. These two parts come together to reach a point of similarity known a aground.The forms of metaphor are presented as following:a) both the tenor and the vehicle exist in a structure or a sentence; 1) vehicle+ of+ tenor(11) It is a jewel of a day.(a jewel-the vehicle; a day-the tenor) 2) tenor is/becomes vehicle(12) Life is a journey.(Life-the tenor; a journey-the vehicle)(13) He becomes an old fox.( he-the tenor; an old fox-the vehicle)b) either the tenor or the vehicle exist with the ground in a structure or a sentence;1) ground+ tenor(14) His present hunger awoke and gnawed at him.(The ability and action of awaking and gnawing-the ground; his hunger-the tenor)2) vehicle only(15) He knew how to work and the citadels would go down before him.(he citadels would go down before him-the vehicle)2. Comparative study of metaphor and an yuMetaphor is always translated as an yu(暗喻)or yin yu(隐喻)in Chinese. Many scholars think they are not equal to each other. Yu Lisan thinks that the English metaphor includes the Chinese an yu(暗喻)，jie yu(借喻)and ni wu(拟物). He Shanfen says that metaphor is equal to all the Chinese forms of bi yu(比喻)except ming yu(明喻). From their research, we could draw a conclusion that metaphor has a wider range than an yu. For example,“an angry sky” in English is metaphor while in Chinese it is ni ren(拟人). So generally metaphor can express not only Chinese an yu but also some other figures such as ni ren, ni wu, kuo yu, jie yu as well.Chen Wangdao thinks that the form of yin yu or an yu is A is B. A is the tenor, and B is the vehicle.(“隐喻是比明喻更进一层的譬喻。明喻的形式是甲如同乙，隐喻的形式是甲就是乙”,)(16)你们是初升的太阳，希望寄托在你们身上。郭沫若：科学的春天Here Chen Wangdao thinks that“A is B” is the only form of an yu,(A refers to the tenor and B the vehivle.) it is not complete. We still have sentences like these:(17)三峡美，三峡美，诗中的山,画中的水。(湖北民歌:三峡美)In this sentence it is not the“A is B” pattern, it is the model of“BdeA”. A is the tenor, and B is the vehicle.(18)你这酒囊饭袋也敢和我比?(A, the tenor-你; B, the vehicle-这酒囊饭袋)(19)在这一场剧烈紧张的决斗中，林黛玉这一枝迎着中国封建时代的风刀霜剑而生长的花朵，终于被统治者毫不怜惜的摧残了。蒋和森:红楼梦论稿(A, the tenor-林黛玉; B, the vehicle-这一枝迎着中国封建时代的风刀霜剑而生长的花朵)The form of an yu in these two sentences is AB, the relationship between the tenor and the vehicle is parallel and the vehicle is the appositive of the tenor.So Chinese an yu has forms like: a) A is B(tenor is vehicle); B) Ade B(tenor+de+ vehicle); c) AB(tenor+vehicle)In general, between metaphor and an yu, the similarities are:1) Both metaphor and an yu are lexical rhetorical figures;2) Metaphor and an yu both express meaning of trope, and they are by means of comparison to form rhetorical figures;3) They all have the form of“A is/becomes B”(the tenor is/becomes the vehicle);and the difference is:The expressional scope of metaphor is absolutely broader than that of an yu.C.EuphemismIn every society there are certain things that are not supposed to be speakable or mentioned directly. A fair number of words are labeled as frivolous, vulgar, or at least inconsiderate. But in communication, for better maintaining social relationship and exchanging ideas, people have to resort to a kind of language, which can make distasteful ideas seem acceptable or even desirable. This type of language is defined as“euphemism” in linguistics. Euphemism is a widely and frequently used figure of speech in Chinese or English. 1. The Definition of Euphemism and“Wei Wan”The English word“Euphemism” comes from the Greek“eu”(meaning“good”) and“pheme”(meaning“speech” or“saying”), and thus it literally means“to speak with good words”. Later on, euphemism is defined differently and more precisely. As a figure of speech, Encyclopedia Britannica(1994) defines it as“a figure of speech in which something of an unpleasant, distressing or indelicate nature is described in less offensive terms.”9For example:(20)“He fed his family on bowls of sunshine.”李定坤：汉英辞格对比与翻译In this example,“he fed his family on bowls of sunshine” means that he had nothing to feed his family. Such euphemism phrase, there are“to live on air”(喝西北风过日子),“live on illusion”(画饼充饥) and so on.In Chinese, euphemism is called“Wei wan”(委婉)、“Wan qu”(婉曲) or“Wan zhuan”(婉转), Chen Wangdao was the first person who gave euphemism（in his words“婉曲”and“讳饰”）a definition. In his Introduction to Rhetoric，the definition reads,“婉曲辞” means“to say something indirectly, but connoting and substituting it with roundabout and implicit words or even metaphorical expression.”(说话时不直白本意，只用委曲含蓄的话来烘托暗示的叫婉曲辞) For example,(21)“You are so plump, Mama Chang, you mist find the heat very trying. Isnt that an awkward position for sleeping in?”My mother put this question after hearing me complaining many times. And I knew it was a hint to my nanny to leave me more space.(“长妈妈生得那么胖，一定很怕热吧？晚上的睡相怕不见得很好吧？”母亲听到我多回的诉苦之后，曾经这样的问过她。我也知道这意思是要她多给我一些空席。)李定坤：汉英辞格对比与翻译In the example, my mothers original intention is that she wants Mama Chang to leave much vacant position for me with the same bed. In order to speak the words mild and agreeable, she selects the guess the expression“you must find the heat very trying. Isnt that an awkward position for sleeping in?” to replace the direct expression“you must be sensitive to heat” and“you must look not good when you are sleeping”. Usually, listener is quite easy to accept such expression than direct expression.2. Differences in Euphemism between English and ChineseThe meanings of English“euphemism” and Chinese“euphemism” are equivalent roughly, but because of English-Chinese peoples different natural and social environment, different linguistic characteristics and cultural values, English and Chinese Euphemism has marked their nations brand deeply. So there are many differences exist on the two kinds of euphemism.a. The same content, one using the euphemism of expression, while straightforward in the otherSome topics are sensitive in China, resulting in a lot of euphemisms; while in west countries, they are normal topics, no euphemisms.Most westerns are Christians, out of reverence for the gods and the devil, fearing address him by name will incur danger or disaster, and they often use another word to replace God or devil. In English, there are as many as thousands euphemism on the“devil”, such as“the Black One”,“Old Boy”,“the Tempter”,“the Big D”,“Lord of the Files”,“the enemy”,“the Wicked One”, and so on. In China, there is no unified religion, Buddhism, Taoism, Islam has a following of believers, religious taboo languages havent a great impact on the whole nation, when it comes“魔鬼”(devils), many call a spade a spade, such as“妖魔鬼