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第五讲 句子种类（二）在第二讲中我们谈到英语句子种类按内容含义可划分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句，这是一种四类分法；那么按句子结构可划分为简单句、并列句、复合句，这是一种三类分法。为了让同学们对这种三类分句子有更清楚、更全面的把握，我们试图从连词这个视角切入，以便同学们能够体会简单句、并列句、复合句是如何架构起来的。那连词在这三类句子中都起什么作用呢？简单来说：简单句中连词就是连接两个相等成份；并列句就是连接两个分句；复合句就是连接主从句。第一节 简单句读一读：1My sister and I went to the movie last weekend.2Either you or I am wrong.3I like both English and Maths.4I like neither coffee nor tea.5He stood up and left the room.6He is not only hard-working but also modest.7You may go there by bus or by bike.8Not only you but also I am interested in cooking.9. Jack as well as his brothers likes sports very much.10. Mary with her friends often goes hiking on weekends.11. He like his parents likes travelling.12. No one but/except Tom and Jack was absent at the meeting.13. There is a cup and several books on the desk.14. The little boy is lively as well as healthy.想一想：以上简单句有什么特点？我们都知道，主、谓、宾、补、表、定、状是一个句子的主干成份，如果一个简单句中包含两个相同成份（如两个主语等），我们如何表达呢？必须由连词连接，请同学们观察前面八个例句，是否明白连词（短语）用来连接句子中任何两个相同成份。这点我们要明白，主语与谓语动词必须要保持一致关系，如果主语是三单，谓语动词要用三单式与之匹配，那么有句子中看似有两个主语的谓语动词怎么来界定呢？请分清两个原则：就近原则例句2、8，假如由not onlybut also; eitheror; neithernor; notbut来连接两个主语，谓语动词要与最近的主语保持一致关系；看例句13，如果是there be句型，be动词要与最近的主语保持一致关系，就远原则看例句9、10、11、12，其中with, like, as well as, except, but, besides等词不是连词，没有连接两个主语，而是介词，介词后面的是介词宾语，这个介宾结构只是主语的补充成分，并不是主语的一部分，也就是说真正主语在句首，谓语动词要与句首的主语保持一致。第二节 并列句读一读：1. You like sports, and so do I.2. I tried to talk to her, but she hung up.3. I was tired yesterday evening, so I went to bed early.（因此）4. I dont believe the boy, for he always tells lies.（因为）5. He practiced a lot, yet he didnt pass the driving test.（然而）6. Father always reads newspapers while mother always watches TV after dinner.（而，表示前后两个谓语的对比）7. I was walking in the street when it began to rain.（就在那时=and then, and at that time）(比较：It began to rain when I was walking in the street)想一想：连词除了连接简单句中的两个相同成份，还用来连接两个独立的分句，构成并列句，观察以上七个例句，常见的用来连接并列句的连词有哪些？and, but, so, for, yet, while, when等，平时要注意积累。第三节 复合句读一读：1. I hope so.2. I hope to visit your country next year.3. I hope that I will have the chance of studying abroad.如果一个简单句中某一个成份（除谓语外）不是一个单词或短语来充当，而是用句子来表示（比较以上三个例句），这就叫从句，它从属于主句的一个组成部份，如果主语、表语、宾语由从句来充当，称为名词性从句；如果状语由从句来充当，称为状语从句；如果定语由从句来充当，称为定语从句。特别提醒：任何从句都有两大特点，其一，必须由连词引导；其二，必须是陈述语序。接下来我们将探讨三大类从句的特征与具体用法，为了便于同学们更容易理解引导各类从句的引导词，我们统称这些引导词为连词，因为大多数从句的引导词都是连词。（但老师们要明白：引导名词性从句的引导词称为连接词；引导定语从句的引导词称为关系词；引导状语从句的引导词称为从属连词。）同学们没有必要把它分得这么清楚，只要记住引导从句的主要是连词，这些引导词主要来自引导特殊疑问句的疑问词。第一小节 名词性从句读一读：1. We know (that) China is becoming greater and greater.2. Nobody knows how they succeeded in crossing the big desert.3. He didnt understand why she refused to marry him.4. Who knows whether/ if he will come to the meeting or not?5. We are interested in how we can learn English well.6. That he didnt pass the computer test was a pity.7. It is a pity that he didnt pass the computer test.8. Whether he will come or not isnt important.9. What books tell us is not always right.10. Whoever breaks the law will be punished.11. My goal is that I can enter a good college.12. The question is whether he has confidence in himself.13. This is what we have discussed.14. It seems that he has known our secret.15. He appeared as if/though he was a big potato.想一想：大家是否能辨别出这些句子具体是哪种名词性从句呢？名词性从句宾语从句（看例句1-5）主语从句（看例句6-10）表语从句（看例句11-15）相同点：1. 如果该从句是内容完整的陈述句，只需没有含义、在从句中不充当成分的连词that引导，除宾语从句可省略that外,主语从句和表语从句不可省略。2. 如果该从句缺少某一成分，就用相应的连词引导（从句的引导词主要是由疑问词转化过来的连接词），该连词在从句中充当一定成分，同时从句的语序必须还原为陈述语序，不要与特殊疑问句里疑问语序混淆。3. 如果该从句不缺成分，但表达一般疑问的含义，我们用whether/if来引导，表示“是否”，其中if只用于引导宾语从句，表示“假如”。4.引导名词性从句的连词还包括ever系列的词，表示对该连词的强调（例句10）。不同点：1. 表语从句多了一个连词短语(as if/ as though，从句的谓语动词一般用虚拟语气)引导。2.请大家比较例6与例7，我们曾经在前一讲非谓语动词中谈到，为了保持句子平衡，我们习惯上用形式主语it打头，真正的主语（非谓语动词短语）后置，放在句末，那么主语从句也是如此，常常后置句末，用形式主语it打头。同时注意，主语从句后面的谓语动词要用三单式，这与非谓语动词（短语）作主语时一样。名词性从句中的连词罗列如下：that, whether, if, as if/as though, what(ever), which(ever), who(ever), whose, whom(ever), how(ever), when(ever), where(ever), why,第二小节 状语从句先请大家回忆一下什么叫状语，所谓状语就是修饰动词所发生的时间、地点、原因、方式、条件、目的、结果等，副词、介词短语、非谓语动词（短语）常常用作状语，除此之外，还有各种连词（短语）引导的状语从句。读一读：1. Close the door and windows before/when you leave.2. While he was cooking the dinner, the telephone rang.3. He was walking to the office as he was eating his breakfast.4. As the days went on, the weather got worse.5. When he got to the room, class had already begun.6. He hadnt left until I came back.7. I havent seen him since he came back from abroad.8. I will tell him the news as soon as he comes back.9. Once you begin, you must continue.10. No sooner had he got home than he began to cook.11. Hardly had he got home when he began to cook.12. He fell in love the first time he met her.想一想：以上是什么类型的状语从句？是由时间连词引导的时间状语从句。任何状语从句都是由具体含义的引导词（表示属于某一类型）加上一个完整句构成的。表示“当什么时候”，可以用连词：when,as,while ,once,nosoonerthan /hardlywhen when从句的谓语动词与主句的谓语动词发生的时间可以同时，也可以有先后之分，这是其它两个没有的（如例5）as强调前后两个动作的同时发生，往往解释为“一边一边”（如例3）;as还有表示“随着”的含义，也是其它两个没有的（如例4）.while从句的谓语动词强调动作的延续性，往往用进行时态来表示（如例2）。No soonerthan/hardlywhen（一就）虽然意思上与as soon as一样，但用法上有差异，因为否定词打头，主句要采取部分倒装的形式，即助动词、情态动词提到主语的前面，这一点要引起注意。once(一旦)既可理解为时间连词也可理解为条件连词。读一读：1. If you dont work hard, you will not pass the examination.2. I wont go to the party unless Im invited.3. You can go play as/so long as you promise to be back before 10:00.想一想：if与unless的差别，注意前后的逻辑关系。as/so long as在这里是固定用法，解释为“只要”。读一读：1. He didnt come to school because he caught the flue.2. Since you have come back, lets begin our work.3. As it is July, the weather is very hot.想一想：because, since, as引导原因状语从句，because, since, as语气由强到弱，because表示不为人知的原因，since表示你我双方知道的理由，as表示众所周知的理由。读一读：1. In order that he could gain some work experience, he took a part-time job while studying at school.2. He he took a part-time job while studying at school so that/ in order that he could gain some work experience.想一想：so that/ in order that解释为“以便、为了”，引导目的状语从句，注意两者唯一的差别是in order that可以放在句首，so that不能。读一读：1. He got up so late this morning that he couldnt get to school on time.2. It is such a nice day that all of us want to go playing outside.3. It is so nice a day/ such nice weather that all of us want to go playing.4. The library has so many books that its hard to find the book I need.想一想：so/suchthat引导结果状语从句，注意两者间的差别，so 直接修饰形容词或副词，such修饰可被形容词所修饰的名词，该名词既可以是可数名词，也可以是不可数名词，假如该名词被many, much, few, little所修饰，表示言其多或少，前面必须用so而不是such（例4）, 这是一种特殊性，请同学们加以区别记忆。读一读：1. Put back the book where you pick it. 2. You can go wherever you like.想一想：引导地点状语从句只有where(ever), wherever解释为（无论去哪里）。读一读：1. You study as hard as I.2. He doesnt work as/so hard as the other students.3. Your maths is better than mine.4. You have the same hobby as I do.想一想：以上是什么类型的从句? 这是比较状语从句，同级比较，我们用asas, not as/soas, the sameas, 表示“比更”我们用比较级+than.(同学们注意，the sameas事实上是引导定语从句，但因为意思与asas一样，差别只是asas中间用形容词或副词的原级，the sameas中间用名词，所以把它放在这里加以比较。)读一读：1. Although/though he was clever, he was lazy and didnt work hard.2. Young as he is, he knows a lot about science.3. My parents will not buy me a computer even if/though I promise to work hard.4. No matter how/However difficult English is, I will do my best to learn it well.想一想：以上又是什么类型的状语从句？让步状语从句是同学们比较陌生的一类从句，它主要由although, though(虽然), as(虽然), even if/even though(即使), no matter系列或ever系列（表示无论,起强调作用）。同学们要注意as当解释为虽然时，引导的让步状语从句必须采取倒装形式，表语或状语前置，这是与although/though的区别。还要注意no matter系列和ever系列，两者在引导让步状语从句时可以互换，但ever系列还可以引导名词性从句，如果遗忘，回到上一小节进行复习，而no matter系列只能引导让步状语从句，不能引导名词性从句，这一点要注意区别。读一读：1. When at Rome, do as the Romans do.2. Do the experiment just as I show you.想一想：这又是什么类型的状语从句呢？方式状语从句也是同学们较为陌生的从句，它表示主语谓语动词发生的方式，它往往由as/just as引导。九类状语从句的引导词after, before, when, while, as/ just as, since, until, till, as soon as, no soonerthan, hardlywhen, once, etc.because, since, as, now thatin order that, so thatso.that, suchthatif, unless, as/so long asthough, although, as, even if, even though, no matter+ who/whom/what/how/where/which/when, ,who/whom/what/how/where/which/when+everasas, not as/soas, 比较级+thanwhere, whereveras, just as,第三小节 定语从句先请大家回忆一下什么叫定语，所谓定语就是起修饰限定名词（或代词）的作用，常见的定语有形容词、名词、非谓语动词（短语），除此之外，就是定语从句。被定语从句所修饰限定的词叫做先行词。读一读：1. Do you know the man who/that is talking to our head teacher?2. Those who want to take part in the game please raise your hand.3. The boy whose mother died early now lives with his grandparents.4. He is a model student whom/who/that/- we should learn from.5. Do you know the model student from whom we should learn.想一想：定语从句的引导词起什么作用？指代前面的先行词，同时在定语从句中充当一定成份。以上例句中的引导词有什么特点？that, who, whose, whom指代的先行词是人，在定语从句中充当主语（that, who）、宾语(that, whom)、定语(whose)。请同学们注意，当引导词在定语从句中充当宾语的话可以省略（如例4），除非介词前置不可省（如例5），且介词后只能用whom, 不能用that。读一读：1. The book which/that/- you are looking for has been borrowed. 2. Who has borrowed the book which/that is on how to be a success?3. The book about which you are talking is on how to be a success.4. Ive lost the book whose cover (the cover of which) is green.想一想：以上例句中的引导词有什么特点？which, that，whose指代的先行词是物，同时在定语从句中充当主语（which, that）、宾语（which, that）、定语（whose, of which）。请同学们注意，当引导词在定语从句中充当宾语的话可以省略（如例1），除非介词前置不可省（如例3），且介词后只能用which, 不能用that。还要注意指物的所有格仍旧用whose, 或者of which，这一点我们平时不太熟悉，所以要牢记whose在定语从句中既指“人的”也指“物的”。讲到这里，同学们可否比较一下引导词that在定语从句和名词性从句中的差异。在定语从句中that指代人或物，同时在从句中充当主语或宾语；在名词性从句中that无意思，在从句中不充当任何成份，只起引导从句的作用。同学们是否掌握that的不同用法。读一读：1. This is the house where/ in which Luxun once lived.2. Do you remember the time when we played together in the school yard?3. I dont know the reason why he didnt turn up at the meeting.(比较下列句子） 想一想：以上例句中的引导词有什么特点？where, 介词+which, when,why指代前面的先行词是指地点、时间、原因，同时在定语从句中充当地点状语、时间状语和原因状语，其中充当地点状语的“where”可与“介词+which”互换。比较：4.This is the house that/which/-Luxun once lived in. 5.Do you remember the time that/which/- we spent together in the school yard?想一想：例4与例1有什么差别？例5与例2有什么差别？体会定语从句中缺什么成分就用相应的引导词代替。读一读：1. She has three children, one