理解公共政策（双语）重点完善.doc

1、Policy analysis is concerned with “who gets what” in politics and, more importantly, “why” and “what difference it makes.” We are concerned not only with what policies governments pursue , but why governments pursue the policies they do , and what the consequences of these policies are .政策分析所关心的问题是政治生活中“谁获得”，而“为什么”以及“它有什么影响”却更为重要。我们要关心的不仅是政府所要推行的政策，还有政府为什么要推行这些政策，以及这些政策的后果是什么。2、Eight analytic models（八个政治模型）Institutional model （制度模型）Group model （团体模型）Process model （过程模型） Elite model （精英模型）Rational model （理性模型） Public choice model （公共选择理论）Incremental model （渐进模型）Game theory model （博弈理论）3、Definition of policy（政策的定义）Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do .Reasons :why study public policy ? 为什么研究公共政策？ scientific understanding （科学的理解）understanding the causes and consequences of policy decisions improves our knowledge of society.理解政策抉择的前因后果可以增进我们对社会的认识。 professional advice （专业的建议）public policy can also be studied for professional reasons政策研究还可能处于专业的原因。 policy recommendations （政策的建议）finally,public policy can be studied for political purposes.最后，公共政策的研究还可能出于政治的原因。4、The difference between policy analysis and policy advocacy.Policy advocacy（政策鼓动） requires the skills of rhetoric, persuasion, organization, and activism. Policy analysis encourages scholars and students to attack critical policy issues with the tools of systematic inquiry. 政策鼓动需要修辞、劝说、组织和积极行动。政策分析则鼓励学者和学生们运用系统研究的方法，对一些关键性的政策提出批评。Specifically, policy analysis involves:Policy ananlysis involves （政策分析包括）A primary concern with explanation rather than prescription.关心解释而不是开处方。A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies.对公共政策前因后果的严格研究。 An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable research findings of general relevance.大胆提出和小心验证关于公共政策前因后果的一般性命题。5、Policy analysis as art and craft（作为艺术和技术的政策分析）It is an art because it requires insight ,creativity,and imagination in identifying societal problems and describing them,in devising public policies that might alleviate them,and then in finding out whether these policies end up making things better or worse .It is a craft because these tasks usually require some knowledge of economics ,political science,public administration,sociology,law,and statistics.（说它是艺术，因为他要求在界定和描述社会问题时具有洞察力、创造力和想象力，以设计可能缓解那些社会问题的公共政策，继而判明这些政策最后的结果是好是坏。说他是技术，是因为这些工作经常需要经济学、政治学、公共行政、社会学、法学和统计学的知识。6、Model for policy analysis（政策分析的模式）A model is a simplified representation of some aspect of the real world .It may be an actual physical representation or a diagram.一个模式是对真实世界某些方面的简化表述。它可以是一个实际的、看得见的表现形式，也可以是一幅图表。7、Uses of models（模式的作用）Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy.简化和澄清我们关于政治和公共政策的思考。Identify important aspects of policy problems界定政策问题中的重要方面。Help us to communicate with each other by focusing on essential features of political life帮助我们就政治生活的重要方面同他人交流看法。Direct our efforts to understand public policy better by suggesting what is important or what is unimportant通过提出哪些问题重要、哪些问题不重要，更好的引导我们理解公共政策。Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences解释公共政策和预测其结果。8、Institutionalism: policy as institutional output 制度主义：作为制度产出的政策Government institutions give public policy three distinctive characteristics政府机构赋予公共政策三个鲜明特征。government lends legitimacy to policies.政府赋予政策合法性。government policies involve universality.政府政策具有全局性。government monopolizes coercion in societyonly government can legitimately imprison violators of its policies.政府垄断社会中的强制力量只有政府才能合法囚禁违反政策的人，其他团体和组织可以使用的制裁手段则比较有限。 9、Policy processes政策过程Problem identification.问题的鉴定The identification of policy problems through demands for government action.Agenda setting.议程的设立Focusing the attention of the mass media and public officials on specific public problems to decide what will be decided.Policy formulation.政策的形成The development of policy proposals by interest groups , White House staff, congressional committees, and think tanks. Policy legitimation.政策的合法化The selection and enactment of policies through political actions by Congress, the president, and the courts. Policy implementation.政策的执行 The implementation of policies through organized bureaucracies, public expenditures, and the activities of executive agencies. Policy evaluation政策的评估The evaluation of policies by government agencies themselves, outside consultants, the press, and the public.10、Rationalism:policy as maximum social gain理性主义：作为社会收益最大化的政策A rational policy is one that achieves “maximum social gain”; that is , governments should choose policies resulting in gains to society that exceed costs by the grestest amount , and governments should refain from policies if costs are not exceeded by gains.一项理性的政策之所以理性，是因为它以“社会收益最大化”为目标，及政府应当选择给社会带来收益最大限度超过所付成本的政策。如果收益没有超过成本，政府就必须避免采用这些政策。11、To select a rational policy,policymakers must在选择理性政策时，决策者必须：Know all the societys value preferences and their relative weights知道所有的价值取向以及它们各自的分量Know all the policy alternatives available知道所有可行的政策选择Know all the consequences of each policy alternative知道每一项政策选择产生的社会后果Calculate the ratio of benefits to costs for each policy alternative对每一项政策选择计算成本收益比Select the most efficient policy alternative选择最有效的替代政策12、Incrementalism:policy as vaviations on the past 渐进主义：作为历史变量的政策Incrementalism views public policy as a continuation of past government activities with only incremental modifications.渐进主义将公共政策看作是政府过去行为的延续，只有一些增量性的改动。Policymakers generally accept the legitimacy of established programs and tacitly agree to continue previous policies,they do this决策者一般都认同既有项目的合理性，同时同意延续原来的政策，他们之所以这么做：Because they do not have the time,information,or money to investigate all the alternatives to existing policy.因为他们没有足够的时间、信息和金钱对所有的现存政策选择进行调查研究。Policymakers accept the legitimacy of previous policies because of the uncertainty about the consequences of completely new or different policies.决策者接受过去政策的合理性，是因为全新政策或者不同的政策其后果具有很大的不确定性。There may be heavy investments in existing programs (sunk costs),which preclude any really radical change.在已有政策中可能已经有很大的投入（基础成本），这就预先排除了真正的锐意变革。Incrementalism is politically expedient.渐进主义也是政治上的权宜之计。In the absence of any agreed-on societal goals or values,it is easier for the government of a pluralist society to continue existing programs rather than to engage in overall policy planning toward specific societal goals.由于在社会或价值目标上缺乏共识，多元社会中的政府更容易延续现存计划，而不是介入一些为了达到具体社会目标而进行的全面政策规划。13、Group theory团体理论Group throry begins with the proposition that interaction among groups is the central fact of politics. An interest group is “a shared-attitude group that makes certain claims upon other groups in the society”. According to group theorists ,public policy at any given times is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle.团体理论提出，团体之间的互动是政治的核心内容。利益集团就是有着共同态度的团体，对社会上其他团体提出一定的要求。在团体理论者看来，特定时间内的公共政策就是团体斗争所形成的平衡。14、Group theory: policy as group equilibrium.（论述）团体理论：作为团体平衡的政策The influence of groups is determined by their numbers, wealth, organizational strength, leadership, access to decision makers, and internal cohesion.团体的影响力由内部成员、拥有的财富、组织力量、领导力量、能否接近决策者以及内部团结程度等因素所决定。there is a large, nearly universal, latent group in American society that supports the constitutional system and prevailing rules of the game.在美国社会中有一个很大的，几乎涉及每个人的潜在团体，他们支持宪法体制和主流游戏规则。overlapping group membership helps to maintain the equilibrium by preventing any one group from moving too far from prevailing values.团体成员的重叠性有助于保持平衡，其方式是防止某一个团体离主流价值太远。the checking and balancing resulting from group competition also helps to maintain equilibrium in the system.团体竞争形成的制衡机制也有助于保持系统平衡。15、Elite theory can be summarized briefly as follows. 精英理论Society is divided into the few who have power and the many who do not.社会被分成两部分，少数人掌握权力，而其他许多人则没有。The few who govern are not typical of masses who are governed.少数行驶统治权的人，在被统治的大众中并没有代表性。The movement of nonelites to elite positions must be slow and continuous to maintain stability and avoid revolution. 从非精英演变为精英的过程很漫长，同时可以持续不断地维持社会稳定和防止革命。Elites share consensus in behalf of the basic values of the social system and the preservation of the system.精英的共识代表了社会系统的基本价值以及如何维持这一系统的理念。Public policy does not reflect the demands of masses but rather the prevailing values of the elite.公共政策反应的不是大众的要求，而是精英的最主流价值观。Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic masses.冷漠的大众对精英们的直接影响相对较少。16、Public choice （公共选择理论）is the economic study of nonmarket decision making ,especially the application of economic analyses to public policymaking.公共选择理论是对非市场决策特别是在公共决策中运用经济分析方法进行的经济研究。Public choice theory recognizes that government must remedy certain “market failures.”公共选择理论承认政府必须弥补一些“市场缺陷”。 government must provide public goods-goods and services that must be supplied to everyone if they are supplied to anyone.政府必须提供公共产品如果需要，这些产品和服务必须向每一个人提供。 Externalities are another recognized market failure and justification for government intervention.另外一个市场失败的例证是“外部性”问题，这证明了政府介入的合理性。17、Game theory（博弈论） is the study of rational decisions in situations in which two or more participants have choices to make and the outcome depends on the choices made by each.博弈论是关于理性选择的研究，这种选择的环境是两个或更多的参与者需要进行选择，而结果又取决于每一个参与者的选择。18、A model is merely an abstraction or representation of political life. 一个模型只是对政治生活的一种提炼或者再现。19、Media effects媒体的影响identifying issues and setting the agenda for policymakers为决策者发现问题并设定议程。influencing attitudes and values toward policy issues围绕政策问题，影响别人的态度和价值观。changing the behavior of voters and decision makers改变投票者和决策者的行为。20、（翻译）The policy process model focuses on how policies are made,rather than on the substance or content of policies.The model identifies a variety of activities that occur within the political system,including identification of problems and agenda setting, formulating policy proposals, legitimating policies, implementing policies, and evaluating their effectiveness.决策过程模型把重点放在政策制定的方式，而不是政策的主旨和内容。这一模型包含了政治系统中的大量活动，包括问题的发现和议程的设定、形成政策提案、立法过程、执行政策过程核对政策绩效的评估。21、The educational groups. P124 Interest group activity in education involves a wide array of racial, religious, labor, and civil rights organizations, as well as parents, citizens, and educational groups. Parents and citizens versus professionals （家长、市民、专业人员） Professional educators（专业教育家）: schoolteachers; professional schools; and faculties of teachers colleges and departments of education at universities. Teachers Unions: like National Education Association (NEA, 全国教育协会), American Federation of Teachers (AFT) Voters and Taxpayers投票人和纳税人 Parents School Boards （学校董事） Racial and Religious Groups （种族和宗教团体）: National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), National Catholic Education Conference, the American Jewish Congress, American United for the Separation of Church and State, the American Civil Liberties Union.22、Educational reform and parental choice.What works? 什么在起作用？P131简答/译Social science research suggests that educational performance is enhanced when the schools are perceived by children to be extensions or substitutes for their family.Charter Schools 特许学校P131名词解释/英译汉/汉译英Community educational groups sign a “charter” with their school district or state educational authority to establish their own school.Magnet Schools兴趣 磁石学校P131名词解释/英译汉/汉译英High schools might choose to specialize, some emphasizing math and science, others the fine arts, others business, and still others vocational training.Educational