Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学(现代语言学).doc

Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Linguists are not interested in all sounds ；they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs in so far as they have a role to play in linguistic communication .These sounds are limited in number .This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language ;and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.语言学家也并不是对所有的声音感兴趣，他们只关注那些在语言交际中占有一席之地、由人类的发音器官所发出来的那些声音。这些声音在数量上是有限的。这些范围有限，但对人类交际活动意义重大、对语言学研究价值不菲的声音就是语言的声音媒介，凡是在这个范围的每个单个的声音都叫做语音。2. Phonetics 语音学2.1 What is phonetics? 什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sound that occur in the worlds languages.语音学一般定义为语言声音媒介的研究。它的主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音。These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.语音学的三个分支分别被称为发音语音学，听觉语音学和声学语音学。Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics.在语音学的这三个分支里，建立历史最长，迄今发展最完善的就是发音语音学。Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs.声学语音学家们正在尝试描述说话者所发出的声流的物理属性。为了记录这些声波，他们使用一种叫做声谱仪的机器。2.2 Organs of speech 语言的发音器官 The Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing” , which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants, such as b, z,m.这种声带的颤动导致一种语音音色的产生“浊音”，这是所有元音和诸如b, z,m之类的辅音所共有的特征。 The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sounds. 声带颤动的速度决定了所发声音的音高。 Voiceless 清音 such as t,s,f. The oral cavity 口腔 The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.气流所受到的主要的调节来自口腔。 The tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. 舌头是最灵活的，因而它比其他任何发音器官在发音变化中所起的作用都要大。 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions语音的正字标音法宽式标音法和严式标音法International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 国际音标The basic principle of the IPA is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.国际音标的基本原则就是对每个不同的语音都分别用一个不同的字母来代表。Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only.( dictionaries and teaching textbooks ).宽式标音法：一套是仅用字母符号来标音的方法。（字典、教科书）Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.( the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds ).严式标音法：一套字母符号和附加符号一起用来标音的方法。（语音学家们在对语音的研究中使用的）Clear l 清音 lDarkl 模糊 lDentall 齿音lAspirated 送气音Unaspirated 不送气音Syllabic nasal 鼻音节2.4 Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类The basic difference between a vowel and a consonant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.元音和辅音的基本区别在于在发前者的时候，从肺部呼出的气流在咽喉、鼻子或口腔里均不会受到任何形式的阻碍，而在发后者的时候则要受到不同形式的阻碍。2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 英语辅音的分类1. Manner of articulation 发音的方法Stops爆破音 ( a stop or a plosive) ：p,b,t,d,k,g fricatives:擦音 affricates:塞擦音 liquids:流音nasals:鼻音glides:滑音2. Place of articulation 发音的位置bilabial：双唇音labiodental：唇齿音dental：齿音alveolar：齿龈音 palatal：腭音velar：软腭音glottal: 喉音2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 英语元音的分类1. The position of the tongue 口腔中舌头的位置 front vowels 前元音 central vowels 中元音back vowels 后元音2. The openness of the mouth 口张开的程度 close vowels 闭元音 semi-close vowels 半闭元音 semi-open vowels 半开元音 open vowels 开元音3. The shape of the lips 嘴唇的形状 All the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels. 所有的前元音和中元音都是非圆唇音。Unrounded vowels 非圆唇音Rounded vowels 圆唇音：all the back vowels ,with the exception of a: 除了a:之外所有的后元音都是圆唇音。4. The length of the vowels 元音的长度 the long vowels 长元音 the short vowels 短元音 The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. 所有的长元音都是紧元音，所有的短元音均是松元音。 When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension. 当我们发一个长元音的时候，喉部处于一种相对紧张的状态。 Diphthongs 双元音3. Phonology 音系学3.1 Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.音系学揭示一种语言中的语音形式组合的方式，以及它们是如何在语言交际活动中被用来传导意义的。3.2 Phone , phoneme , and allophone 音素，音位和音位变体A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.音素是一个语音单位或切分成分。Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. 音系学关心的是能够区别意义的语音现象。The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme.音系学中最基本的单位叫音位。A phoneme is an abstract, distinctive and phonological unit.A phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.音位不是一个具体的声音，而是一些语音区别特征的集合。The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.在不同的语音环境中能够代表同一个音位的不同音素叫做该音位的音位变体。A different definition would be that a phoneme is a class of phonetically similar sounds, which in a particular language do not stand in contrast with one another. 音位也可以定义为在某一特定的语言中语音相似却不相互构成对比的一组声音。3.3 Phonemic contrast , complementary distribution , and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立对Phonemic contrast refers to a relation between different phonemes .They can take the same position in a sound combination but they cause difference in meaning.音位对立指不同音位之间的关系。它们在一个声音组合里占有同一位置，但却会导致意义的不同。Two allophones of the same phoneme occur in different environments, but they never contrast each other. These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 它们是相同音位的两个音位变体，在不同的场合出现，它们从来不会形成对立。因此这两个来自相同音位的音位变体具有互补分布的特点。When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.如果两个不同语音组合，除了在相同的位置有一个语音切分不同之外，其他任何方面都相同，那么这两个语音组合（单词）就被认为形成了一个最小对立对。3.4 Some rules in phonology 几条音系学规则3.4.1 Sequential rules 序列规则Sequential rules govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 序列规则在某种语言中制约着声音的组合。1. if a word begins with a l or a r , then the next sound must be a vowel.( that is why lbik lkbi are impossible combinations in English )如果一个单词以l 或 r音开始，那么下一个音必须是一个元音。2. if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:如果3个辅音一起出现在单词的开头位置，那么这个组合必须遵守以下3条规则：(1). the first phoneme must be /s/.第一个音位必须是/s/。(2) .the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/. 第二个音位必须是/p/ or /t/ or /k/.(3) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.第三个音位必须是/l/ or /r/ or /w/. 3. the affricates and the sibilants are not to be followed by another sibilant. teachteaches 塞擦音和咝音不允许后接另一个咝音。3.4.2 Assimilation rules 同化规则The assimilation rules is a phonological rule which assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme thus making the two phones similar. In English the vowel nasalization rule is an assimilation rule.同化规则是指一个语音受同一个音位序列中另外一个音素的影响，从而“复制”另外一个音素的某种特征，结果使得两个音素非常相似。英语里后接鼻音的元音要鼻音化就属于同化规则。3.4.3 Deletion rules 省略规则3.5 Suprasegmental featuresstress , tone , intonation超切分特征 重音，声调，语调 The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological