有机农业外文文献

Organic agriculture requires process rather than product evaluation of novel breeding techniques E T LammertsVanBueren1 2 H Verhoog1 M Tiemens Hulscher1 P C Struik3and M A Haring4 ILouis Bolk Institute Hoofdstraat 24 NL 3972LADriebergen The Netherlands 2 LaboratoryofPlant Breeding Wageningen University P O Box386 NL 6700AJWageningen The Netherlands 3 CropandWeed Ecology Group Wageningen University Wageningen The Netherlands 4SwammerdamInstitute forLifeSciences UniversityofAmsterdam Amsterdam The Netherlands Correspondingauthor e mail e lammerts louisbolk nl Received20December2006 accepted 9 February2007 Abstract In organic agriculturetheuseofgenetically modified organisms GMOs is banned Recently two novel breeding techniques havebeendeveloped i e cisgenesisandreverse breeding bothofwhich are basedongene technologybutshould raise less moral concerns fromthepublic Whethertheproducts ofthese breeding processes are classifiedasGMOs dependsontheinterpretationofthe relevantEU regulations In cisgenic plants thegenes introducedthroughgenetic modification are from a crossable donorplantsothatthe sourceofthe genes is considered to beofthesame nature In reverse breeding the recombinant genes essential to the breeding process are no longer present in the product resulting fromtheentire breeding process andthusthe productassuch is not transgenic Should varieties obtainedthroughcisgenesisorreverse breeding be allowed in organic agriculture Theanswerto this question dependsonwhethertheproductortheprocessofbreeding is taken into account Assessment basedonthe product implies a choiceofan ethical approach that only considers the extrinsic consequences ofhumanaction bymakinga risk benefit analysis Itneglects so called intrinsic ethicalarguments related totheapplied technology the process itself The organicmovementusestheintrinsicargument of unnaturalness against genetic engineering We therefore concludethatproductsofcisgenesisand reverse breeding should be subject to thecurrentGM0 regulationsinorganic agricultureandshould thusbebannedfrom organic agriculture Additionalkeywords cisgenesis ethical notions extrinsic values integrity intragenesis intrinsic values naturalness reverse breeding NJAS54 4 2007401 E T LammertsVanBueren H Verhoog M Tiemens Hulscher P C Struik and M A Haring Introduction Geneticmodificationis widelyusedinplantbreedingandtheacreageofgenetically modifiedcropsincreasesrapidly especiallyinNorthandSouthAmerica Chinaand India Anon 2006a Thedefinitionofa geneticallymodifiedorganism GMO ac cordingtotheEuropeanDirective2001 18 ECis as follows Geneticallymodified organismmeansanorganism withtheexceptionofhumanbeings inwhichthe geneticmaterialhasbeenalteredina waythatdoesnotoccurnaturallybymating and ornaturalrecombination Anon 2001a InEuropetheuseofgenetically modifiedcropsinconventionalfarmingis still amatterofpublicdebate asthe techniquegives rise tomoralconcerns Anon 2006b andworriesaboutecological risks Firbanketa 2003 However inorganicfarmingthedebatehasalreadybeen settled AbanonGMOshasbeenincorporatedintheBasicStandardsforOrganic ProductionandProcessingofthe worldwide InternationalFederationofOrganic AgricultureMovements IFOAM since1993 Anon 2005 Since1999 alsotheED Regulation fororganicagriculture2092 91 ECprohibitstheuseofGMOsandthe productsobtainedthroughtheuseofGMOsinorganicproduce Anon 1991 However molecular scientists have recently tailoredgenetechnology by developing techniquesthatincreasetheefficiencyofmodernplantbreedingandsimultaneously diminishmoralconcernsfromthepublic Nielsen 2003 Lusk Myskja 2006 Therearealsoclaimsthatthesetechniqueswarrantless strict over sightthan conventional transgenics becausetheecological risksoftheproductsare allegedlyabsentorveryminor Schouteneta 2006a b Two novelbreedingtech niquesareofspecialinterestinthiscontext cisgenesis Rommens 2004 andreverse breeding VanDuneta 2005 See Box1 Clarityonthestatusofthesetechniquesisimportantfor policieswithinandout sidetheorganicmovement especiallywithrespecttoissuessuchas labellingand coexistence De CockBuningeta 2006 Cisgenesisisaninterestingcase asitis currentlyappliedtoobtainresistanceinpotatoagainstlate blight amajordisease especiallyinorganicfarmingsystems Reversebreedingprovidesbreederswitha powerfultool forspeedingupthedevelopmentofF1hybridsandcouldbeexcluded fromtheGMO regulation astheproductdoesnotcontainrecombinantDNA Intermsoftheprocessneededto createthedesiredproduct bothcisgenesisand reversebreedingareverysimilartotransgenesis allthreetechniquesrequireastep withgenetechnology However intermsoftheproductthethreetechniquesaredif ferent Inthecaseofreversebreeding theproductdoesnolongercontainthegene constructinsertedduringthebreedingprocess Inthecaseofcisgenesis thereare newgenesinserted buttheywerealreadypresentinthegenepoolofthespecies becausetheyoriginatefroma crossableparentorfromthesamespecies Inthecase oftransgenesis agenehasbeeninsertedthatwasnotyetpresentinthegenepoolof thespeciesandneithercouldbeobtainedbymatingornaturalrecombination ItisnecessarytorethinkwhetherandwhythebanonGMOsinorganicagricul tureshouldalso apply totheproductsfromthesetwo noveltechniquesorwhynot Forthisrethinkingprocessitisessentialto clarifyorreassessthepositionoforganic agricultureonwhetheronlytheproductofthebreedingprocessoralsotheprocessoj 402NJAS54 4 2007 Assessment of novel breeding techniques for organic agriculture Box1 General description of cisgenesis and reverse breeding Cisgenesis also calledintragenesisoringenesis involves likeinthecaseoftrans genesis genetransfertechnology Cisgenic plantsaredefinedasplantsthathave beengeneticallymodifiedwithoneormoregenes includingintronsandflanking regionssuchas nativepromoterandterminatorregionsinasenseorientation isolatedfroma crossabledonorplant i e ofthesameoraclosely relatedspeciesor isolatedfromwithintheexistinggenome Rommens 2004 Schoutenet a 2006a b Thisdistinguishesthemfromtransgenic plantsthatcanbedescribedasplants thatcontainrecombinedDNAfromunrelatedorganisms Technically cisgenesis andtransgenesisaretwosimilarapproachesto creategeneticvariabilitythrough genetechnology onlythesourceofthegenesis different Toobtainan all native genetransfersystem companieshave developed plant derived selectionmarkers andplant derived T DNAborders Rommens 2004 Geneticallymodifiedplants obtainedinthisway willnothaveanynovel DNA sequences althoughtheintroduced pieceofDNAcanalwaysbetracedbecauseofitsuniquecomposition Reversebreeding VanDuneta 2005 is essentiallyaprocessinwhichtheorder ofeventsleadingtotheproductionofa hybridplantvariety is reversed Itallowsthe breedertoreconstructparentsofa novelproprietarybreedinglinewithouthaving to gothroughthetediousback crossingandselection process Thisprocessistimeand labourconsumingbecausesexualreproductionisaccompaniedbyrecombinationof chromosomes Parentsthatwouldreconstitutethenovelbreedinglinewouldhave tobeidentifiedbyscreeninglargepopulationsforthedesiredtraitandgenotype Reversebreedingaimstoruleoutmeioticrecombinationandallowsgametesto developthatcontainwholechromosomesetsoftheparent Becausein vitroculture ofpollenoregg cells allowstheregenerationofplants doubledhaploidplantscan beobtained Anycombinationofparentalchromosomescanthusberecoveredin homozygouslines ThroughDNAmarkeranalysisthesedoubledhaploidscanbe genotypedto selectthehomozygouslinesthatbecometheparentsofthedesiredFr hybrid Theessentialstep suppressionofrecombination is achieved byintroducing inthenovelbreedinglineanRNAiconstructthatsuppressestheactionofoneof theknownrecombinationgenes Thistransgeniclineisusedtogeneratedihaploid progeny BecausetheparentisheterozygousfortheRNAiconstructhalfofthepro genywillnotcontainthistransgene Theseareselectedandusedforfurthergeno typingandFr hybridconstruction Theconsequenceisthattheproductnolonger containsatransgeneandthusdoesnothave tobelabelled as GMO breedingis essential Inotherwords shouldnovelbreedingtechniquesbeevaluated for organic agricultureonthe basisofaproductassessmentoronthe basisofthecurrent processassessmentintheregulatoryguidelinesonGMOs Inthispaperwe shallfirstanalysetheroleofethical valuesinorganicagriculture andrecapitulateandanalysetheargumentswhyorganicagricultureisopposingthe NJAS54 4 2007403 E T LammertsVanBueren H Verhoog M Tiemens Hulscher P C Struik and M A Haring useofGMOs Weshallthendiscussindetailtheprocessandproductorientationin theregulationofGMOsandinthepublicdebateongenetechnology Finally weshall applytheinsightfromthesediscussionstoassesswhethercisgenesisandreverse breedingareacceptable fororganicagricultureornot Roleofethicalvaluesinorganicagriculture Alr0e Tosupportdevelopmentandextensionoforganicagricultureintonewareas Toplanpro active research Todiscussorganicrules Thislistshowsthatvaluesnotonly have arestrictingeffect toresistandexclude unwanteddevelopments suchasgeneticengineering butalso givesguidancetowhat organic is Thelattercanstimulateproducers researchersandotherstakeholdersto furtherdeveloporganicagriculture Padel zooS Valuescanhelp toresistunwanted developments Thiscanbedemonstratedbythecaseofgeneticengineering IFOAM Anon zooz statedinapositionpaperthatitisopposedtogeneticengineeringin agriculture becauseoftheunprecedenteddangeritpresentsfortheentirebiosphere andtheparticulareconomicandenvironmentalrisksitposesfororganicproducers Mostoftheobjectionsmentionedinthispositionpaperwerenotformulatedinterms ofvaluesthatarethreatened butintermsoftheconsequencesofthetechnology withanemphasisonrisks Thereareexceptions thepositionpaperalsoreferredto free choiceandtotheprinciplesofsustainableorganicagriculture Butwhatthese principlesare wasnotmadeexplicit Verhoog zo07a ItwasnotbeforezooSthat IFOAM explicitly acceptedfourethicalprinciplesasbeingconstitutive forthebasis ofvaluesinorganicagriculture thePrinciplesofHealth Ecology FairnessandCare Luttikholt zo07 elaboratesthesefourethical principles WhyisorganicagricultureopposingtheuseofGMOs Thereasonswhyorganicagricultureisagainstgeneticengineeringcanbedescribed intermsofthe precautionaryprinciple asformulatedinapublicationbytheDanish ResearchCentreforOrganicFoodandFarming DARCOF Anon zooo andin termsoftheconceptofnaturalnessasdescribedby Verhoogetal zo03 andVerhoog zo07a Theprecautionaryprincipleisputforward by DARCOF to explainthebanon pesticidesandGMOsinorganicfarming The rationale behind the precautionary principleisthat in organicfarming the interaction between Nature andManisan important ingredientofthe philosophy Organicfarmingbuilds on the concept that Natureisanintegrated whole that people have a moral dutytorespect bothfor its intrinsic value and because by using its regulatory mechanisms one can establish a more self sustainingagro 404NJAS54 4 2007 Assessment of novel breeding techniques for organic agriculture ecosystem Natureisa very complex coherent system ofwhichManhas often little understandingtoappreciate the consequencesofspecific actions DamagetoNature andthe environment will ultimately damage Man p II Thisexplanationmentionstheholisticphilosophyofnaturethatunderliestherisk perceptioninorganicagriculture Theintrinsicvalueofnatureisrespectedand referenceismadetotheself regulationoftheagro ecosystem Manisseenaspartof natureoras aparticipantinnature TheconceptofnaturalnessofVerhoogeta zo03 zo07a isbasedonasimilar wayofthinking Theseauthorsdistinguishthreeapproachesinorganicagriculture basedondifferentaspectsoftheconceptofnaturalness Theno chemicals approach Agriculturebasedontheprinciplesofliving organic nature e g refrainingfromchemical syntheticinputsandreplacingthembynatural substances dealingwiththenotionofnaturethatgrows by itself oftheautonomyof life andofa principleofhealth Theagro ecological approach Manispartofnatureandinagriculturemanmust takeintoaccounttheself organizing capacityofnatureina holistic way ecosystem approach thinkingincycles harmony balance resilience Learningfromthewisdom ofnature Theintegrity approach Allotherlivingentitiesareseenaspartnersinthewhole whichwechoosetorespectmorally intrinsicvalue inherentworth Theyhave a characteristic nature oftheirown Respectfortheintegrityofnaturalentities is related totheirwholenessanda relativeautonomy Verhoog zooS Fourlevelsof integritycanbedistinguished integrityoflife planttypic integrity genotypic integrity andphenotypicintegrity LammertsVanBuereneta zo03 LammertsVanBueren Lammerts Van Bueren Verhoog 2oo7a Mostoftheofficial GMa regulations however arebasedontheproduct The approachis verymuchconsequential utilitarian i e focusedontheusefulnessand onthepotentialriskoftheproduct butdoesnottaketheinherentworthintoaccount Verhoogeta 2003 2oo7a Theapproachcorrespondswiththedominanceofreduc tionisticandmechanisticthinkinginapplied biotechnology Alsothedebatesonthe risksandbenefitsofgenetechnology usuallydealwiththeproductonly andextrinsic product orientedargumentsaredominant Participantsfocusontheconsequencesof applyinggeneticengineering suchastherisksofthetechnology forhumans safety andfortheecosystem genetransferto wildplantsoranimals Thewhole process thatleads totheseproductsis usually leftoutoftheethical reflection Anexampleof a casewheretheintrinsicissueswereruledoutfromtheverybeginningisthepublic debate FoodandGenes thattook placeinthe Netherlandsin2001 Thedebate focused onspecific case studies suchas late blightresistantpotato pesticide resistantmaize salmonwithresistanceto cold water vitaminA rice andBSEresistantcows The informationgiven tothepublicwasmainlyaboutweighingthecosts risks andthe benefits Attheendofthedebatetheorganizingcommitteeconcludedthat ethical issues defined asintrinsicconcerns played aminorroleinthedebate Terlouw 2002 Butthisminorrolemayhavebeenduetothefocusonrisksandbenefits Opportunitiestodiscussintrinsicissueswerevery scarce Anon 2001 Thisis a general trend Soonerorlater intrinsicargumentstendtoberuledoutinpublic debates andinofficial policies Verhoog 2003 Thequestioniswhythishappens Thereport Geneticallymodifiedcrops bytheNuffieldCouncilonBioethics Anon 1999 provides a clue Theexplicit choice for scientific valuesandutilitarianism leads tothedismissalofintrinsicconcerns in casumoralconcerns inthedebate aboutgenetechnologyandfood Arguablythechoiceofscientific valuesandthe choiceofautilitarianapproachto ethicsaremutuallydependentandtendto reinforce each other Theyformanimplicitorexplicit alliancebetweenscienceandutilitarianism indebatesonthesocio ethical aspectsofgeneticengineering inparticularintheargu mentationofthosewhoareinfavourofgeneticmodificationtechniques Argumentstosupportthisideaofanalliance are 1 The historyofthe recombinantDNAdebate which started with concerns about the risks tohumansofgenetically engineering bacteria Thefocus wasonrisks Technicalsafetycommittees mainlyconsistingofnaturalsci entists were installed to discussandadvisegovernmentsabouttherisks Thescientific andethical aspectsweresharplydistinguishedanddiscussedinseparatecommittees Mostofthetime whenthescientists advisedthatthe risks wereminimalornegligible theresearchcouldgoon Iftherewas ariskofsomekind containmentmeasureshad tobetakentominimizetheeffects Theresulthasbeenthatthe natural scientists becamethemainactorsinthefield Science alsobecamethebasis forregulationand policy Davieseta 2002 Noweighingofrisksandbenefitstook place notevenin thefieldofplantbiotechnology 2 The tendency both in natural science and in utilitarianismtomake a separation between 406NJAS54 4 2007 Assessment of novel breeding techniques for organic agriculture the realmofthe subject and thatofthe object objective nature Verhoog 2003 Thebeliefinthevalue freedomofscience leads totheviewthatvalues onlycomein afterwards whentheknowledge is applied Lookingattheconsequencesfromonly a utilitarianpointofviewmakesoneabstractedfromthehuman naturerelationship Thisalmostautomatically creates anichefor science asthemeanstostudytheconse quences 3 The separation often made in secularized multi cultural societies between the public sphere and the private sphere ofmoraljudgements Utilitarian deliberationsaboutextrinsic concernsareseenas publicwhereasintrinsic concerns whichareusually related to specific world views areseenas private Private beliefs are personal subjectiveandshouldthusberuledoutinpublic decision making Scientistseventendto callsuchbeliefsirrationaloremotional Science isseenas neutral standingabove all world views Thisalliancebetweenscienceandutilitarianismcanexist aslongasitistakenfor grantedthatthescientific reductionistic viewonnatureistheonlytrueone andnot a world viewinitself Once this truth is questioned debatesonfoodandbiotechnology canbebroadenedbeyondtheutilitarianframeworkthatnowdominatesthediscus sions bothinpracticeandinethical theorydevelopment Toquestionthattruth one onlyneedstomoveone sattentionawayfromexperimentalreductionisticscience and focusonapproachesthatarecloser totheworldofourimmediateexperience Inour directcontactwithplantsandanimals theorganismsareusually experienced as living wholes Fromthis more holistic perspectiveitis possible to experiencegenetechnology as a violationoftheintegrityoftheorganism Verhoog 2005 2oo7b Integrityhasto dowithwholeness withaharmoniousbalancebetweenallthepartsofanorganism thegenesincluded Fora holisticthinker genesarenotjustexchangeableelements orbuildingmaterials Suchholistic viewpointsarenotjustgutfeelingsoflaymen but substantialelementsinthephilosophyoforganicfarming Lund 2002 Thechoiceof akindofagriculturewithoutGMOs is as willbeshown aninformedand reasonable choicewithintherationalframeworkoforganicfarming Froma non holistic reductionisticpointofview experimentalnaturalsciences includingsciencesrelatingto biotechnology arebasedonacertainphilosophyof nature whichleads to aproduct orientationandtocorrespondingutilitarianethics In organic agriculture themoreholistic philosophyofnatureleads to a processorientation withacorrespondingethicalapproachinwhichthereisroomforintrinsicarguments Assessmentofcisgenesisandreversebreeding Process and product oriented reasons for not using cisgenesis Thefactthatcisgenesisis ageneti