泛读考点总结范文.doc

泛读考点总结范文 The genesisof the short story:A.Oral story-telling tradition:The short story has always existedas aninformal oraltradition B.Developed andbecame popularin thenieenth century:a stapleof theprevailing magazineand periodicalmarket.During this period,fiction waschanneled in the directionof realismor adetailed representation of everydaylife,typically thelived andexperiences familiarto middle-class individuals.Besides itsrealistic impulse,the modern short storydiffers from the ancientforms ofshort fictionin stillanother way:in theratio betweensummary andscene.C.The20th century:the goldenage D.Britain:first startedthe form:Walter Scott,then laggedbehind E.Prevailed inFrance,Russia,America,representative writersF.List3famous writers:Two GreatTraditions in the ShortStory:A.Guy DeMaupassant beginning-middle-and-end plot is consideredone of the fathersof the modernshortstory.He delightedin cleverplotting.Taking hiscue fromBalzac,Maupassant wrotefortably inboth thehigh-realistic andfantastic modes.(W.Somerset Maugham,OHenry).B.Anton Chekhov(1860-1904):Chekhovian story:Impressionistic technique,plotless/formless,mood,constructs a story withoutepisodic interest(Katherine Mansfield:plagiaristically Chekhovian,Raymond CarverErnest Hemingway)Seven BasicVarieties of the ShortStory:The event-plot story,the Chekhovian story,the moderniststory,the cryptic/ludic story:suppressed narrative,the mini-novel story,the poetic/mythic story,the biographicalstory.The event-plot story:The eventsof the story are often meantto illustratesomething abouthuman nature,or todeliver amessage whichis relatedto day-to-day experience,the meaning of lifeor humanvalue.Theme is an importantelement in the storiesthat offersinsight into human natures.Sometimes the theme isexpressed directlyin a story.Most of the time,however,the thememust beinferred fromother elementsin thestory.Not everystory can be saidto havea theme.For example,mysteries andadventures stories are toldmainly forentertainment,and there is generallylittle orno significancein them.Chekhovianstory:Impressionistic technique,plotless/formless,mood,constructs a story withoutepisodic interest.(1850-1893):event-plot story:The structureelement ofshortstory:Plot，Characterization，Theme，Point of view，Tone.Characterization:The waya writerpresents a character in a storyis knownas characterization.A writermay tellyou directlywhat a character islike.He maymake directments revealingwhat hethinks abouthis character.It is more mon,however,for awriter todevelop a character indirectly.The writerallows youto drawyour ownconclusions abouta characterby characters actions&words;revealing the characters thoughts;showing howthecharacter is treatedby others.A writermay,of course,use bothdirect&indirect methodsof characterizationin presentingacharacter.Some characters in short stories donot changein anymeaningful way.At the end of their stories,they haveessentially thesame personalitiesthat theyhave atthe beginning.Such charactersare referredto as“static”Characters whoundergo someimportant changesare referredto as“dynamic”.Some charactersappear inliterature so often that they arerecognized immediatelyas types.Instead ofexisting asindividual ororiginal creations,they conformto a set pattern(Stock/stereotyped characters).In orderfor the charactersin astoryto havecredibility,they mustbehave likereal people.We needto feelthatthey are trueto life.To bebelievable,characters mustbehave withconsistency.If acharacter undergoesa change,there mustbe sufficientreason toexplain it.There mustbe motivation,or reason,to aountfor acharacters actions.People can be motivatedby outsideforces orby theirinner needs.The point of viewA.The first-person point of view:the narratoris sometimesthe protagonist,and sometimessimply anobserver orreporter of the centralaction.Thus werefer to“first-person participant”and“first-person observer”point of view.In nocase shouldwe assumeautomatically thatthe narratorand the writer areone.As adramatized character,the narratormay bevery differentfromthewriter.Quite often,thewriterdeliberately wishesus tounderstand thatthe narrators perceptionsand judgmentsare notpletely aurate;therefore,we mustbe alertfor thepossibility of an unreliablenarrator.The narratorspeaking as“I”has theadvantages of adding immediacyto astory.But suchpointofview alsohas limitation.The readersees the events fromthe vantagepointof only one character.The character can revealhis ownthoughts butcant getinto the minds ofother characters.B.The third-person pointofview:A storycanbetold fromthe third-person pointofview,by anobserver whodoes notplay arole in the events.The third-person narratormay bean omniscient,or all-knowing,observer,who knowswhat all the characterscan see,hear,think,and feel,and whoments onthe action and interpretstheevents.(e.g.V anityFair)However,The narratormay enterthemindofonly onecharacter.describing thecharacters physicalappearance;showing theThe toneA.Irony:Irony involvesa differenceor contrastbetween appearanceand reality-that isa discrepancybetween whatappears to be trueand whatreally istrue.Irony remindsus thatlife isunpredictable andthat whatwe expectto happenor wishto havehappened does not alwayshave theintended result.Irony canmake ussmile orwince.It canbe genialor bitter.1)Irony ofsituation(in whichthere isa contrastbetween whatis expected to happenand2)what actuallyhappens,e.g.shooting thegoat insteadof thetiger inSakis story.)3)Dramatic irony(in whichthe readerknows somethingthat acharacter in thestorydoesnotknow.)4)Verbal irony(in whichacharactersays ohing andmeans something.entirely different.(“Its perfectfairness isobvious”The institutionisavery popularone”.)B.Satire:Sometimes ahumorous storymocks orridicules certainweakness,follies,or vicesin humannature andsociety throughirony,derision,or wit.A literarywork thatpokes funat somefailing ofhuman behavioris calledsatire.Satire isgenerally oftwo kinds:it canbe gentle,amusing,and lighthearted,or itcanbebiting,bitter,even savage.Minimalism Minimalismdescribes movementsin variousforms of art anddesign,especially visualart andmusic,where thework isstripped downto its most fundamentalfeatures.Literary minimalismis characterizedby aneconomy withwords anda focuson surfacedescription.Minimalist authorseschew adverbsand preferallowing contextto dictatemeaning.Readers areexpectedtotake anactive roleinthecreation of astory,tochoose sidesbased onoblique hintsand innuendo,rather thanreacting todirections fromthe author.The charactersin minimaliststories andnovels tendto beunexceptional;they maybe poolsupply salespeopleor secondtier athletioaches rather than famousdetectives orthe fabulouslywealthy.Generally,the shortstoriesareslice oflifestories.Minimalist fictionpresent significantdetails arrangedinaway thatcauses thebrain tosupply missinginformationto extendthe lines,so tospeak.As a result weperceive informationthat makesthe point,develops character,reveals the theme,and justifiesthe voice.Understated,elliptical,truncated,opaque,and dense.Epiphany:The termused inChristian theologyfor amanifestation ofGods presenceinthe world.It wastaken overby JamesJoyce todenote secularrevelation inthe everydayworld.A sudden,intuitive perceptionof orinsight into the realityor essentialmeaningofsomething,usually initiatedby somesimple,homely,or monplaceourrence orexperience.Joyce seesthe epiphanyasacrucial building-block offiction.It is the momentat whichacharacterunderstands thatthe illusionsunder whichhe orshe hasbeen operatingare falseand misleading.The traditionalplot-line Exposition(setting)，Rising action(conflicts)，Climax，Falling action，Resolution(denouement).EpiphanyPlot:In modernfiction,the mostmon alternativeto theconflict-plot is the epiphany-plot,that is actions aredirected towardan epiphanyan intuitionof truthrevealed ator neartheendof astory.In anepiphany-plot,the protagonistis relativelypassive,acted uponratherthanforcing eventsby hisown will.Something happensto him,and asaresultwe areled to an insighteither abouthim orabout lifein general.Epiphany-oriented storiesareoftenabout seeminglytrivial incidents.The scenesor episodesbee meaningfulwhen theyare tiedtogether by the momentof knowledge,a momentwhich ultimatelyserves as thethemeof astory.Chekhovian moodThe moodcreated whenseemingly unrelateddetails,monologues,charactersremarks forma unifyingatmosphere,the existentialbasis ofhuman life.The Chekhovianmood isthat cavein whichare keptall theunseen andhardly palpabletreasures of Chekhovs soul,sooftenbeyond thereach ofmere consciousness.(Refer toWoolfs“The RussianPoint ofView”:p5“On the other hand,the methodamong theRussians themselves.”)3stage of Chekhovs writing:He wrotestories whilegoing intomedical practice,from whichhe gaineda wealthof knowledgethat wouldlater beeevident inhis fictionThese earlyworks,generally lookedupon asthe firstmajor periodofChekhovs writing(18801887),did,however,display manyChekhovian narrativepermutations intheshortstory genre:laconic introductions,impressionistic characterizationthrough importanceof detail,interior action,and surpriseendings.From1888to1893Chekhov wasprofoundly influencedby Tolstoys ethicsconcerning morality,nonresistance toevil,and altruism;and thisbegan thesecond epochofChekhovs fictionin whichhe experimentedwith lyricismand themationtrasts:beauty,sensitivity,and lifeas opposedto hideousness,banality,and death.Later herejected Tolstoyanismas aninsufficient responsetohumansuffering.Yet Chekhovcontinues inthis letterto shrewdlycriticize Tolstoyfor the“too theological”Resurrection,only justpublished.This spiritualupheaval broughtabout Chekhovs thirdcreative eraduring whichhe producedhis mostplex andunique shortstories anddramas.The journeyproduced inChekhov aconcern forsocial issuessuch asthe injustice,corruption,and violenceof Russiansociety.Even thoughChekhov hasbeen viewedas anutter pessimist,largely dueto hisrealistic portrayalof Russiansociety duringan eraof imminentrevolution,his personallyexpressed viewwas oneof uneasyoptimism withregard tosocial progressand scientificadvancement.Chekhovs literaryartistry,bined withhis medicalknowledge andinsight intohuman textures,resulted in shortstoriesthat havealtered thenarrative standardsfor anentire literaryform.Eugene GladstoneONeills achievement?an Americanplaywright,and Nobellaureate inliterature (1936).?Pulitzer Prizesfor fourof hisplays:Beyond theHorizon (1920);Anna Christie (1922);Strange Interlude (1928);and LongDays JourneyInto Night (1957).ONeill iscredited withraising Americandramatic theaterfrom itsnarrow originsto anart formrespected aroundtheworld.He isregarded asAmericas premierplaywright.?His playsare amongthe firstto introduceinto Americandrama thetechniques ofrealism,associated withRussian playwrightAnton Chekhov,Norwegian playwrightHenrik Ibsen,and Swedishplaywright AugustStrindberg.His playswere amongthe firstto includespeeches inAmerican vernacular.His playsinvolve characterswho inhabitthe fringesof society,engaging indepraved behavior,where theystruggle tomaintain theirhopes andaspirations butultimately slideinto disillusionmentand despair.ONeill wroteonlyonewell-known edy(Ah,Wilderness!).Nearly allof hisother playsinvolve somedegree oftragedy andpersonal pessimism.?He wasalso partof themodern movementto revivethe classicalheroic maskfrom ancientGreek theatreand JapaneseNoh theatrein someof hisplays.Career asa Playwright:Three PeriodsHis earlyrealist playsutilize hisown experiences,especially asa seaman.In the1920s herejected realismin aneffort tocapture onthe stagethe forcesbehind humanlife.His expressionisticplays duringthisperiodwere influencedbytheideas ofphilosopher FreidrichNietzsche,psychologists SigmundFreud andCarl Jung,and Swedishplaywright AugustStrindberg.During hisfinal periodONeill returnedto realism.These laterworks,which mostcritics considerhis best,depend onhis lifeexperiences fortheir storylines and themes.Play Asliterary genre,drama hasaffinities withfiction,poetry,and theessay.Like fiction,drama possessesa narrativedimension:a playoften narratesastoryinthe form ofplot.Like fiction,drama relieson dialogueand description,which takestheformof stagedirection,lines describingcharacters,scenes,or actionswith cluesto production.Unlike fiction,however,in whicha narrativeoften mediatesbetween usandthestory,thereisno such authorial presencein drama.Instead,we hear the wordsof thecharacters directly.To gainthe appreciationof theuniquely theatricalidiom ofdrama,we shouldread dramawith specialattention toits performanceelements.We cantry tohearthevoices ofcharacters,and imagiones andinflections.We cantry tosee mentallyhow characterslook,where theystand inrelation toone another,how theymove andgesture.We canread,in short,as armchairdirectors andas aspiringactors andactresses consideringthe physicaland practicalrealties ofperformance.Types ofDrama Tragedyand edyhave beenrepresented traditionallyby contrastingmasks,one sorrowful,theotherjoyful.Its oftenless importantto decidewhether a play ispredominantly icor tragic,romantic orsatiric,than to acknowledge itsmixture ofmodes and to respondfully tothecharactersor situationsit dramatizes.Some twentieth-century dramatistshave foundthat tragiedyismoresuitable forrepresenting aplex,uncertain,and oftenirrational worldthan eithertragedy oredy alone.Elements ofDrama?Plot:Plot isthe structure of a plays action.Although itenpasses whathappens ina play,plotismore thanthe sumof itsincidents.Plot isthe orderof theincidents,their arrangementand form.Following Aristotle,we candistinguish betweenall thelittle actionsor incidentsthat makeup a play andthe singleaction thatunifies them.It isthis unifiedstructureofincidents(or littleactions)Aristotle callsactionandwe callplot.Traditional plotstructure consistsof anexposition,presentationofbackground informationnecessary forthe developmentof the plot;rising action,asetof conflictsand crises;climax,the playsmostdecisive crisis;falling action,a follow-up thatmoves towardthe plays resolutionor denouement(French forthe untyingof aknot).?Character:If plotistheskeletal frameworkofa play,characterisits vitalcentre.Characters bringplays tolife.First andlast webee absorbedinthecharacters:how theylook andwhat theirappearance tellsus aboutthem;what theysay andwhat theirmanner ofsaying expresses;what theydo andhow theiractions revealwho theyare andwhat theyrepresent.We maye to know themand respondto themin wayswe etoknowand respondto actualpeople,allthewhile realizingthat charactersare literaryimitations ofhuman beings.Drama livesintheencounter ofcharacters,for itsaction isinteraction.Its essenceis humanrelationships,the thingsmen andwomen sayand doto each other.Dramatic characterse togetherand affecteachother,making thingshappen bying intoconflict.It isin conflictthat charactersreveal themselvesand advancethe plot.?Dialogue:Ezra Pound,themodernAmerican poet,once describeddrama as“persons movingabout ona stageusing words”inshort,people talking.Listening totheir talkwe hearidentifiable,individual voices.In theirpresence weencounter persons,for dialogue inevitably bringsus backto character,dramas humancentre.And thoughdialogueinplays typicallyhas threemajor functionsto advancetheplot,to establishsetting(the timeand placeofthe action),andtoreveal character,its mostimportant andconsistent functionistherevelation ofcharacter.The verbaldimension ofthe dialogueofthecharactercanbe reinforcedby action,gesture,movement.?Staging:By stagingwe havein mindthe spectacleaplaypresents inperformance,its visualdetail.This includessuch thingsasthepositions ofactors onstage(sometimes referredto asblocking),their nonverbalgestures andmovements(also calledstage business),the scenicbackground,the propsand cos