土木工程毕业设计外文翻译.doc

外文翻译（译文）公路工程20世纪的初期，美国的大多数的街道和马路都是用泥土、 砖块和松柏木材建造而成的。由于只是为马匹、马车和步行建造的，这些马路通常得不到细心维护，而且很窄，根本就容纳不下汽车的通行。随着汽车制造业的发展，在当地有关部门监管下的私立收费公路开始涌现出来。截止到1921年，美国有了共计38.7万公里的公路。他们中的很多都是采用19世纪苏格兰工程师托马斯特尔福德和约翰麦克亚当（碎石路面正是因为他们而得名的）所制定的规范，他们的标准强调了充分排水的重要性。除此之外，根本就没有关于大小尺寸、重量限制以及商业标识的国家标准。在第一次世界大战期间，全国的马路几乎完全被重型卡车破坏了。当艾森豪威尔将军在德国服役于美国陆军第一洲际车队于1919年从德国归国时，他说道：“旧的车队让我开始考虑完善的双车道的公路，但是德国的高速公路让我看到了更宽阔的跨地域纽带可显示出的智慧。”又经过了一次战争，联邦政府才开始行动起来来建设全国范围的高速公路体系。第二次世界大战期间，对货车和新道路数量的需求大幅度上升。战争证明了道路对于防御系统工作的重要性。13%生产防御设备的工厂都是靠卡车来获得原材料，而且几乎其他所有的工厂半数以上的产品都由机动车来运送。战争同样也暴露了这样一个现象，对公路的地方管制已经导致已经导致了众多令人混淆的设计标准。甚至联邦政府和各州的公路都不遵循基本的标准。一些州允许卡车载重量高达36000磅， 但另一些却限制载重不可以超过7,000磅。一项政府研究项目建议在全国建设一个总长度为33,920英里的国家公路系统。不久之后，国会很快通过了1944年联邦资助公路法案，这项法案呼吁建立严格的、由中央控制的道路设计标准。州际公路系统最终于1956年正式动工，它被誉为上个世纪最伟大的公共工程之一。为了修建长达44000公里的公路、桥梁、隧道网，人们必须制定出数以百计的有针对性的特殊工程设计方案和问题解决方针。方案要考虑到各地的地理特征：山地、 陡坡、 湿地、 河流、 沙漠和平原。道路的各种变量包括地面的陆地的倾斜程度、公路的载重负荷能力、道路的使用强度和地表土壤的种类。城市区域又是另外一个问题。能够贯穿或绕过城市区域的创新设计其中包括车行道、地下隧道、桥梁、人行天桥以及立交桥等很快地在全国各地涌现出来，并且永远地改变了美国的面貌。像路易斯安娜的黑尔博格斯大桥和佛罗里达的阳光高架桥一样的长跨度混凝土吊索桥，以及像马里兰的麦克亨利堡隧道和华盛顿的贝克山的著名隧道，这些跨距长，分段混凝土浇筑的用支索固定的桥梁经受了这个国家很多地理方面的挑战。由州际公路项目所发展起来的交通控制系统和建筑方案，很快就影响了全世界的高速公路建设，并在改善城市市区街道状况和交通模式方面起到了不可估量的作用。生产方式决定物流模式，现代企业生产方式经历从“推”模式向“拉”模式的转变，促使物流模式也发生同样的转变。过去是以生产推动销售，物流模式的特点是高库存；而现代企业生产方式则是市场需求拉动生产，相应的物流模式也由高效率、低成本的运输系统和信息系统替代高库存。在这样的模式下，运输出现差错的后果更严重，因此生产企业选择运输方式时除了考虑成本因素，还要考虑货物价值、运输速度、能否全程追踪、以及承运方的服务水平等附加因素，企业更依赖于使用快捷可靠的运输方式，在这方面，公路运输比铁路运输更有优势。今天，州际交通体系不仅连接了美国国内的各大主要城市，并且把美国与加拿大和墨西哥连接了起来。出于对安全性的考虑，公路都建有宽敞的车道和路肩、分隔栏或路障、较长的入口和出口车道、为安全拐弯而设计的弯转，以及限制出入的通道。高速公路上的事故死亡率仅为美国其他道路的一半（高速公路旅客周转量1亿人英里的死亡率是0.86，而其他公路旅客周转量1亿人英里的死亡率则是1.99）。通过打开北美大陆的门，高速公路使在偏远地区和农村地区的人们能够获得消费者和服务，并且促进了郊区城镇之间的共同发展，为人们提供了更多的选择，其中包括工作以及更多地接触文化节目、健康护理和其他各项便利服务。但最重要的是，这个州际系统给人们提供了他们最珍惜的东西：个人出行快捷方便。从海上运输和创造就业机会的角度来说，州际交通系统一直是国家经济增长的一个不可或缺的要素：全国75%以上的货物靠卡车来运输的，且绝大多数用铁路以及飞机运输的货物最后一段路程还是靠机动车来运输。公路系统并不仅仅是通过提供运输线路来影响美国的经济，它还促使了很多附属产业的产生和发展，比如说服务站、汽车旅馆、饭馆以及购物中心。它为生产工厂迁至新址以及其他产业由城区转移到乡村提供了条件。 到上世纪末，美国已经建成了集公路、住宅区街道、高速公路以及免费高速公路于一体的巨大的道路网络，为数以百万计的机动车辆提供了便利。洲际公路系统被官方正式更名为艾森豪威尔，以纪念其远见卓识和领导才华。在开始修建的那一年，艾森豪威尔将军曾说：“通信系统和交通运输系统联合起来的巨大力量正是我们国家最重要的活力来源。没有了它们，我们仅是各自分裂的松散联盟。”外文翻译HighwaysEarly in the 20th century, most of the streets and roads in the U.S. were made of dirt, brick, and cedar wood blocks. Built for horse, carriage, and foot traffic, they were usually poorly cared for and too narrow to accommodate automobiles.With the increase in auto production, private turnpike companies under local authorities began to spring up, and by 1921 there were 387,000 miles of paved roads. Many were built using specifications of 19th century Scottish engineers Thomas Telford and John Macadam (for whom the macadam surface is named), whose specifications stressed the importance of adequate drainage. Beyond that, there were no national standards for size, weight restrictions, or commercial signs. During World War I, roads throughout the country were nearly destroyed by the weight of trucks. When General Eisenhower returned from Germany in 1919, after serving in the U.S. Armys first transcontinental motor convoy , he noted: The old convoy had started me thinking about good, two-lane highways, but Germanys Autobahn or motorway had made me see the wisdom of broader ribbons across the land.It would take another war before the federal government would act on a national highway system. During World War II, a tremendous increase in trucks and new roads were required. The war demonstrated how critical highways were to the defense effort: thirteen per cent of defense plants received all their supplies by truck, and almost all other plants shipped more than half of their products by vehicle. The war also revealed that local control of highways had led to a confusing variety of design standards. Even federal and state highways did not follow basic standards. Some states allowed trucks up to 36,000 pounds, while others restricted anything over 7,000 pounds. A government study recommended a national highway system of 33,920 miles, and congress passed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, which called for strict contract-controlled design criteria.The interstate highway system was finally launched in 1956 and has been hailed as one of the greatest public projects of the century. To build its 44,000 mile web of highways, bridges, and tunnels, hundreds of unique engineering designs and solutions had to be worked out. Consider the many geographic features of the country: mountains, steep grades, wetlands, rivers, deserts and plains. Variables included the slope of the land, and the ability of the pavement to support the load. Innovative designs of roadways, tunnels, bridges, overpasses, and interchanges that could run through or bypass urban areas soon began to weave their way across the country, forever altering the face of America.Long-span, segmented-concrete, cable-stayed bridges such as Hale Boggs in Louisiana and the Sunshine Skyway in Florida, and remarkable tunnels like Fort MC Henry in Maryland and Mr. Baker in Washington developed under the nations physical challenges. Traffic control systems and methods of construction developed under the interstate program soon influenced highway construction around the world, and were invaluable in improving the condition of urban streets and traffic patterns.The mode of production determined the logistics mode. The transform of the mode of production of modern enterprises are changing form the “push” to the” pull”, impelling the logistics mode have the same transform. In the past, the market pushed forward by the manufacture. The feature of the logistics mode is high inventory, as well as, the mode of production of modern enterprises means that the market demands pull manufacture. The corresponding logistics mode is becoming high inventory, instead of the transport system and information system of high efficiency and low cost. In this mode, it is more serious that transportation has any errors, for this reason, the production enterprises choosing the mode of transportation considering cost factors, the value of goods, traveling speed, whether the goods can be track in whole journey, the standard level of carriers and other additional factors. The enterprises more depend on using fast and reliable mode of transportation. In this respect, highway transportation has more advantages than railway transportation.Today, the interstate system links every major city in the U.S. and the U.S. with Canada and Mexico. Built with safety in mind the highways have wide lanes and shoulders, dividing medians, or barriers, long entry and exit lanes, curves engineered for safe turns, and limited access. The death rate on highways is half that of all other U.S. roads (0.86 deaths per 100 million passenger miles compared to 1.99 deaths per 100 million on all other roads).By opening the North American continent, highways have enabled consumer goods and services to reach people in remote and rural areas of the country, spurred the growth of suburbs, and provided people with greater options in terms of jobs, access to cultural programs, health care, and other benefits. Above all, the interstate system provides individuals with what they enrich most: personal freedom of mobility.The interstate system has been an essential element of the nations economic growth in terms of shipping and job creation: more than 75 percent of the nations freight deliveries arrive by truck. And most products that arrive by rail or air use interstates for the last leg