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Chapter5 Semantics1. Definition1.命名论The naming theoryProposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.(缺点：仅限于名词)2.意念论The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIts based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Here are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.2. Lexical meaning:Sense: it is concerned with inherent meaning of linguistic form; it is the collection of all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: it means the linguistic form refers to the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Main sense relations 1.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.(1) Dialectal synonymssynonyms used in different regional dialects（方言）British Americaautumn fallflat apartment(2) Stylistic synonyms-Synonyms differing in style（文体）Old man daddy father male parent(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning（情感）Collaborator VS Accomplice(4)Collocational synonyms（搭配）Accuse VS Charge（accuseof; chargewith）Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs(5)Semantically different synonyms（语义）Amaze VS Astound2.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.Ball: 1. an round object used in game.2. a large formal social event at which people dance.3.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.1). Homophones同音异义It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.2).Homographs同形异义It refers to two words are identical in form. E.g. tear v. /tear n.3). Complete homonyms同形同音It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. E.g. tear v. /tear n.4.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Superordinate: animal Subordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,5.反义词AntonymyIt is the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.a) gradable:等级反义词old-youngb) complementary：互补反义词male-femalec) relational:关系反义词father-son buy-sell4. Sentence sense relations: 1）.X is synonymous with Y（同义）E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.He never married all his life.2）. X is inconsistent with Y（不一致/反义）E.g. John is marriedJohn is a bachelor.3）.X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X)（包含于）E.g. He has been to France.He has been to Europe.4）. X presuppose Y（Y是X的先决条件）E.g. Johns bike needs repairing.John has a bike.5）. X is a contradiction（X是一个矛盾句）E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6). X is semantically anomalous.（语义异常）E.g. The table has bad intensions.5. Analysis of meaning1. Componential Analysis成分分析法-分析词汇抽象意义Its a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.E.g. Man=Adult +Male+ Animate+ Human2. Predication Analysis述谓结构分析(由British Linguist G.Leech提出)Its a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands etc. (通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)3.先设前提PresuppositionIts a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.4.蕴涵EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a blonde.第6章pragmatics本章要点：1. speech act theory言语行为的理论2. cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3.Grice an theory of conventional implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。本章内容索引：1Pragmatics Definition Pragmatics & semantics ContextSentence meaning vs utterance meaning2Speech act theoryAustins model of speech actsSearls classification of speech actsIndirect speech acts3Principle of conversionCooperative principle and its maxims Violation of the maxims4Conversational implicatureDefinition: Characteristics of conversational implicative Calculability Cancellability Non-detachability Non-conventionality5Cross-cultural pragmatics failure1PragmaticsDefinition：It is the study of speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics & semanticsIf the context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.ContextA: Definition: It is generally considered as the knowledge that shared by the speaker and hearer.B: Significance: It determines the speakers use of language and the hearers interpretation of what is said to him. With context, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized.Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent, and based on sentence meaning.2 Speech act theoryAustins model of speech acts为)：A: an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.B: An illocutionary act(言外行为)：an act of expressing the speakers intention. C: An perlocutionary act(言后行为)：an act of performed by or resulting from saying something; the consequence or change brought about by the utterance;Searls(瑟尔) classification of speech actsA: Representatives(阐述类): stating or describing, saying something what the speaker believes to be true. 陈述，相信，发誓 Eg: I swear I have never seen the man before.B: directive(指令类)：Trying to get the hearer to do something. advise，ask，beseech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge.E.g.：open the door!C: Commissives(承诺类)： committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. commit，consent，guarantee，offer，pledge，promise，refuse，threaten. E.g.：I promise to come!D: Expressives(表达类)：expressing the feeling or attitude towards an existing state. apologize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcome Eg：I am sorry for the mess I have made. about immediate change by saying something.E: Declarations(宣告类)：bring about immediate change by saying something. appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resign. E.g.: I fire you.Indirect speech acts (developed by Searl)Two speech acts:The primary: speakers goal of communicationThe second: means by which he achieves his goal.3 Principle of conversionCooperative principle and its maxims (Paul Grice)A: the maxim of quantity量的准则: (you are what you say)Make your contribution informative as required, not more informative than required.B: the maxim of quality质的准则: Tautologies(意思重复)Do not say something you believe is false, or something is lake of evidence. C: the maxim of relation关系准则: Be relevant.D: the maxim of manner方式准则:Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.Violation of the maxims 通过实例分析违反准则。4 Conversational implicature Definition: Characteristics of conversational implicative Cancellability/defeasibilityThis means that an implicature can be cancelled. The feature allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature. A: Lets have a drink.B: Its not one oclock yet. (Implying we can drink after one oclock)A: I didnt say that you could drink after one oclock. I said that you couldnt drink before. (the implicature disappears) Non-detachabilityThis means that an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words for synonyms or in other words by relexicalization or reformulation.For example, if everyone knows that Bob is an idiot, saying Bob is a genius to convey the opposite meaning Bob is terribly foolish, he can choose any of the following synonymous expressions to maintain the same implicature:a) Bob is a mental prodigy.b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being. c) Bob is an enormous intellect.d) Bob is a big brain. Calculability/derivabilityThis means that an implicature is calculable, that is to say, it can be worked out from the literal meaning or the sense of the utterance on the one hand, and the Cooperative Principle and its maxims on the other hand. Non-conventionalityThis is to say that conversational implicatures are not conventional, that is, not part of the conventional meaning of linguistic expressions.But we should notice that what begins as a conversational implicature may become the meaning of a lexical item or linguistic expression. For example:Go to the bathroom originally meant Going to WC as an euphemism, but now has become conventionalized. We dont have to derive the implicature by the CP but by convention.5 Cross-cultural pragmatics failure第7章language changes 语言变化本章要点：1 Phonological change 音系变化2 Morphological and syntactic change 形态和句法变化 3 Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化本章考点：新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法； 词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。1.Definition of historical linguistics 历史语言学的定义A branch of linguistics. It concerned with the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over the time.2. Phonological changePhonological change tends to be systematic. It is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of English language.3. Morphological and syntactic change Addition of affixes 词汇的增加In English many affixes are borrowed. Eg the suffix ment in French.Lost of affixesSome affixes fade out of useChanges for word orderCase marking lost, subject-object-verb fixed.Change in negation rule Eg. I love thee not.I do not love thee.4 lexical and semantic change(1) Addition of new words 新词的增加 A: coinage/inventionA new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose. Eg: walkman, Kodak, FordB: clipped wordsClipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrase. Eg gym-gymnasium Expo- exposition Memo-memorandum Disco-discothequeC: blendingA blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg smog = smoke+fog MotelBrunch = breakfast+ lunchD: AcronymsAcronyms are word derived from the initials of several words. Eg BBC VOAE: Back-formation Deleting the affixes. E.g. to automate 自动化automation to legislate 立法legislationF: Functional shiftWord-class shift from one to another. Eg noun-verb loveG：Borrowing 借词法(2)Loss of words 词汇的废弃 Eg beseem to be suitable Wot to know Gyve a fetter(3) change in the meaning of words Semantic broadening 词义扩大Holiday 原形是holy day 神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。Semantic narrowing 词义的缩小Hound 曾经用来指Dog 的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。Semantic shift 词义转换Inn 原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。5 Some recent trendsA: moving to greater informality. Aint cant didntt 出现在文章中。B: the influence of American English随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影响。C: the influence of technology and science 新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达D: Space travelSpace suit, heat-shield splash-downE: computer and internet language Program input outputF: Ecology 生态学 环境保护和资源保护。6 causes of language change 语言变化的原因 经济政治文化发展。第8章sociolinguistics1 the scope of sociolinguisticsThe definition of sociolinguistics定义: It is a branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.The relatedness between the language and society 相关性The main function of language is communication, but it also use to establish and maintain social relationship.Users of the same language may speak differently because their different social background.Speech community and speech variety 言语团体与言语变体Speech community: the social special study.Speech variety: any distinguishable form of language used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Speech features can be found at the lexical, the phonological, morphological, or the syntactical level of the language.Two approaches to sociolinguistics studiesMacro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language :宏观社会语言学或者语言社会学 View the society as a whole and consider how language function s in it andhow it reflect the social differentiations.Micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper: 微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会语言学： point of view of an individual member within it.2 varieties of language: Dialectal varieties Regional dialectDefinition: refers to the language used by people living in the same geographical region. Features:(1) Regional dialect boundaries are often coinciding with geographicalboundaries. (2) In most cases, the regional dialect in two neighboring area are mutuallyintelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is gradual.(3) Reasons: The geographic barriers; loyalty to the ones native speech; physical and psychological resistance to the change.Sociolect(1) Definition: social-class dialect refers to the characteristics of a particular social class.(2) Features: two people from the same geographic may speak differently because of their socialfactors, such as background influence which influence linguistic form.(3): Ascent is an important maker of sociolect.Language and gender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)a) The language of woman is more standard than that of man.b) Woman has wider range of intonation.c) Woman tend to use adjectives of evaluation d) Woman tends to be more polite than man. Language and age (词汇差异)A) the language used by the old generation and the younger generation is different, especially in the lexical level. Idiolect (个人语言)Refers to personal dialect that was decided by his social background, gender, age and so on.Ethnic dialectIt is usually used by the underprivileged population that has experienced some form of racial discrimination and segregation.Features of black English (非 1. mainly used by the non-middle-class Blacks2. the simplification of the consonant clusters.(语音上) 3. deletion of be（句法上）4. the use of double negation structure： he dont know nothing.Register 语域选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型 就是语域The type of language selected that is appropriate to the situation is a register. a) field语场： refers to what is going on. The operation of the language activity b) Tenor 语旨： refers to the relationship in the situation in question. c) Mode 语式： refers to the means of communication. Eg: a lecture on biology in a college could be identified as: Field: scientific (biology)Tenor: teacher and students (formal and polite) Mode: oral (academic lecture) Degree of formalityLanguage used on different occasions differs in different degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables.Intimate casual consultative formal frozen. 3 standard dialectDefinition: the standard variety is particularly prestigious and superimposed dialect of a language. 通常为政府，媒体，教育行业所使用。Nature: 标准方言是语言变体的一种特殊变体，因为它不与任何特定语言使用者群体都无关。而是一个语言社团的任何成员都可能使用的变体，无论其社会和地理背景。性别年龄如何。Features: selected variety of a language, which used by the nations political.4 pidgin and Creole Pidgin：Definition: is a language variety that mixes different language for the special use, like trading.Origin: 起源于几种不同语言的使用。特点：词汇有限，语法结构非常简单， 没有曲折变化，词性和格的消失。 Creole：克里奥耳语Definition：当洋泾滨语成为某一特殊团体使用时，就成为了洋泾滨语。 Features: 洋泾滨语的结构得以拓展； 词汇量被极大的丰富。5 choosing a code Dislossia 双语变体：A situation where two varieties of a language exits side by side throughout the community. used by Ferguson in 1959.Features: 两种语言变体功能的具体化。Bilingualism and multilingualism 双语现象和多语现象Bilingualism: a situation where two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play. 例如： 加拿大魁北（英语和法语） Code-switching 语码转换A change made by speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one.a) the situational Code-switching: speak one language in situation and another in a different one.6. linguistic taboos and euphemisms第九章 language and culture本章要点：The relationship between language and culture 语言和文化得关系 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫的假说 Linguistic evidence of cultural differences 文化差异的语言证据1. the definition of culture 名词解释广义上：total way of life of a people, including belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques and language characterize the life of human community.狭义上：refers to the specific practice , customs, or beliefs, which can be found in folk culture, or food culture.2.语言和文化之间的关系 分析异同点A：对个人而言：Language permeates his thinking and viewing, it also expresses and embodies its cultural reality.B: 对社会而言：language helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language reflects the changes in culture.3. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language helps to shape our ways of thinking, and consequently language reveals our unique ways of understanding the world.The strong version: (linguistic determination): 语言决定论 La