社会心理学三英文版LectureSocialbeliefsandjudgementsPPT课件.pptx

Lecture3 SocialBeliefsandJudgments TieyuanGuo 1 Outlines PerceivingsocialworldsJudgingsocialworldsExplainingsocialworldsEffectsofourexpectationofsocialworlds 2 PerceivingOurSocialWorlds PrimingActivatingparticularassociationsinmemoryExample WatchingascarymovieathomemayprimeustointerpretwindownoisesasapossibleintruderExperimentInoneear youheard Westoodbythebank Intheotherear youheard river or money Results Thewordsinthesecondear primes yourinterpretationofthesentence 3 PerceivingOurSocialWorlds PrimingEvensubliminalstimulicansubtlychangeourbehavior Flashingtheword bread subliminallycanmakepeopleidentifytheword butter morequickly 4 Embodiedcognition ThemutualinfluenceofbodilysensationoncognitivepreferenceandsocialjudgementsExperiments Physicalsensation cognitivepreferenceandjudgementParticipantswhowereexposedtothescentofcleanera werequickertoidentifycleaningrelatedwords b recalledmorecleaningrelatedactivities andc evenkepttheirdeskcleanerwhileeatingcrumblycookie Participantswhowereholdingawarmdrinkratedothersasbeingmorewarmlyandgenerouslythanthoseholdingacolddrink Sittinginahardchairvs softchair hardorsoftcriminalsentence 5 Embodiedcognition ThemutualinfluenceofbodilysensationoncognitivepreferenceandsocialjudgementsTheotherwayaround Cognitivepreferenceandjudgement Physicalbehavior sensationParticipantswhorecalledpersonalimmoralbehaviorwashedtheirhandslongerthanthosewhorecalledmoralbehavior 6 Thepowerofpreconceptions Preconceptionscanbiasourperceptionofthesocialworld InPoliticalPerceptionsWhatifsomeonesay UMRectorZhaoWeiisanokayleader ForthosewhoadmireandrespectZhao Thecommentsoundslikeacritique Thispersonisbiased ForthosewhodislikeZhao Thisisapraise Thispersonisbiased Thismayexplainwhysportsfansperceiverefereesaspartialtotheotherside andpoliticalcandidatesandtheirsupportersalwaysperceivethenewsmediaasbiased 7 Thepowerofpreconceptions Preconceptionscanbiasourperceptionofthesocialworld InPoliticalPerceptionsExperimentShowedPro IsraeliandPro Arabstudentssixnewssegmentsdescribesakillingevent Results Eachgroupperceivedthenewsashostiletoitsside 8 Thepowerofpreconceptions Preconceptionscanpersevereitselfbyadoptingfavorableevidenceandignoringdisapprovalinformation InPoliticalPerceptionsExperimentParticipantswhofavoreddeathpunishmentandwhodidn t Bothgroupofparticipantsreadtwo studies oneconfirmedandonedisconfirmedthedeterrenteffectofdeathpenalty Results Thegroupwhofavoreddeathpenaltysupporteddeathpenaltyevenmore andthegroupwhoopposeddeathpenaltyopposedmore i e themixedevidenceincreasedthedisagreement Thatmayexplainwhypresidentialdebatesusuallyreinforcepredebateopinions 9 Thepowerofpreconceptions InPerceptionofOthersPreconceptionscanbiasourperceptionofothers ExperimentOnegroup aNazileaderformedicalexperimentsonconcentrationcampinmatesCruelfacialexpressionTheothergroup Ananti NaziundergroundleaderwhosavedthousandsofJewishlives Warmandkindfacialexpression 10 Others perceptionofus SpontaneoustraittransferenceWhenwesaysomethinggoodorbadaboutanother peoplespontaneouslytendtoassociatethattraitwithus Apersonwhogoesaroundsayanotherpersonisgossip wetendtoperceivethispersonasbeinggossip 11 BeliefPerseverance BeliefPerseverancePersistenceofone sinitialconceptions aswhenthebasisforone sbeliefisdiscreditedbutanexplanationofwhythebeliefmightbetruesurvives 12 BeliefPerseverance BeliefPerseveranceExperimentImplantabelief participantsweretoldthatindividualswhotakeriskmakeeithergoodorbadfirefighters Explainwhy participantsexplainedwhyrisk takingorbeingcautiousisgoodforsuccessfulfirefighters Discreditinformation participantsweretoldthattheinformationtheyinitiallyreceivedwascompletelymadeupfortheexperiment andhalfothersreceivedtheotherversion Results theinitialbeliefpersevered Thosewhoweretoldrisk takingorbeingcautiousaregoodforfirefighterscontinuetomaintaintheirbeliefs 13 ConstructingMemories ConstructingMemoriesMemoriesarenotexactlycopiesofourexperiences information We re constructourmemories MisinformationeffectIncorporating misinformation intoone smemoryoftheeventafterwitnessinganeventandreceivingmisleadinginformationaboutit 14 Misinformationeffect Showafilmofacaraccident thenaskparticipantsHowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheysmashedintoeachother 40milesHowfastwerethecarsgoingwhentheycontactedeachother 30milesAweeklater askparticipantsiftheysawanybrokenglasses infact nobrokenglassesinthefilm Smashedinto condition 33 reportedyes Contacted condition 14 reportedyes 15 ConstructingMemories ReconstructingourpastattitudesPeopletendtobelievetheyalwayshavesimilarattitudeseveniftheirattitudeshadbeenchanged ExperimentMeasuredstudentsattitudestowardapolicyallowingstudentscontroltheuniversitycurriculum Aweeklater askedstudentstowroteanessayopposingstudents control themanipulationchangedtheirattitudesRecalltheirinitialattitudesaweekago Results Studentsbelievedthattheirinitialattitudeswerethesameasthepresentones deniedchanges 16 ConstructingMemories ReconstructingourpastattitudesRosyretrospection The good olddays Theconstructionofpositivememories ExperimentParticipantsreportedtheirdailyfeelingswhentheyhada3 weekbiketrip Afterthetrip theyrecalledtheexperiencesResults Thetripwasmorefondlyinrecallthanitactuallywas 17 ConstructingMemories ReconstructingourpastattitudesIncloserelationship thelove at first sightillusionWhenpeoplearesatisfiedwiththeirpartner theyoverestimatetheirinitialliking ExperimentParticipantsratedtheirsteadydatingpartnerwhentheystartedtherelationshipand2monthlaterResults Thosewholoveeachothermoreoverestimatetheirinitialliking loveatthefirstsight andthosewhobrokeupunderestimateit 18 ConstructingMemories ReconstructingourpastbehaviorExperimentIn one study someparticipantswereconvincedthedesirabilityoftoothbrushing Theninanseemingly unrelated study theyrecalledbrushingtheirteethmoreoftenintheprecedingtwoweeksthanthosewhodidn theardtheinformation 19 ConstructingMemories ReconstructingourpastbehaviorBelieveinself improvementprograms reconstructingpastbehavior performanceExperimentStudentsreportedtheirinitiallearningskillbeforeandafteralearningskill training program Thetrainingprogramisactuallyuseless Afterthe training program studentratedtheirinitialskillasbeingworsethantheirinitialratings Thismayexplainwhypeoplebelievemanytrainingprogramsareeffective 20 Outlines PerceivingsocialworldsJudgingsocialworldsExplainingsocialworldsEffectsofourexpectationofsocialworlds 21 JudgingOurSocialWorld IntuitiveJudgments PowersofintuitionControlledprocessingReflective deliberate andconsciousAutomaticprocessingImpulsive effortless andwithoutourawarenessExamplesEmotionalreactionsareoftenhappeningbeforedeliberatethinking Directneuralshortcutstoemotionprocessingcenterbeforegoingtocortex Unconsciousthinkingleadstosatisfyingchoices 22 JudgingOurSocialWorld IntuitiveJudgments PowersofintuitionImplicitmemoriesandcognitionsPatientswhocannotformnewexplicitmemoriesCannotmemorizeexplicitly buttheirbehaviorwasaffectedbypreviousexperienceBlindsight Patientscouldn tseeobjectsbecausepartoftheirvisualcortexwasremoved buttheycouldguessifastickisverticalorhorizontal 23 Overconfidence Tendencytobemoreconfidentthancorrect tooverestimatetheaccuracyofone sbeliefsExperiments Ifeel98 certainthattheairdistancebetweenNewDelhiandBeijingismorethan milesandlessthan miles Results About30 oftime therealdistanceisoutsidetherangeparticipants98 confidentabout 24 Overconfidence IncompetencefeedsoverconfidenceThosewholacksofcompetencetendtohavemoreoverconfidenceExample Thosewhodon tknowthelogicareoftenunwaretheylackit Ourignoranceofourignorancesustainsouroverconfidence ExamplesPlanningfallacyStockbrokeroverconfidence Stocksselectedbyanalystsdonotoutperformrandomlyselectedstocks 25 Whatproducesoverconfidence Recallmistakenjudgementas almost right Confirmationbias atendencytosearchforinformationthatconfirmsone spreconceptions andignoreinformationthatmightdisapprovetheirpreconception Demonstration Igeneratedthefollowing3numbersaccordingtoarule andwouldlikeyoutoguesswhatistherule Youcangenerateadditional3numbersandI lltellyouwhetheryournumbersfollowtheruleornot 2 4 6 Sowhatistherule Myruleis theyareascendingnumbers 26 RemediesforOverconfidence GivepromptfeedbacktoexplainwhystatementisincorrectForplanningfallacy askoneto unpackatask breakitdownintoestimatedtimerequirementsforeachpartGetpeopletothinkofonegoodreasonwhytheirjudgmentsmightbewrong 27 Heuristics Heuristics mentalshortcuts simple efficientthinkingstrategies RepresentativenessheuristicTendencytopresume sometimesdespitecontraryodds thatsomeoneorsomethingbelongstoaparticulargroupifresembling representing atypicalmember 28 Heuristics RepresentativenessheuristicLinda whois31 single outspoken andverybright Shemajoredinphilosophyincollege Asastudent shewasdeeplyconcernedwithdiscriminationandothersocialissues andsheparticipatedinantinucleardemonstrations A LindaisabanktellerB Lindaisabanktellerandactiveinthefeministmovement 29 Heuristics AvailabilityheuristicCognitiverulethatjudgesthelikelihoodofthingsintermsoftheiravailabilityinmemoryThemoreeasilywerecallsomethingthemorelikelyitseemsEvidence Mediaattentiontogay lesbianissuesmakegaysandlesbianscognitivelyavailable Overestimatesthenumberofgaysandlesbians InUSA theestimationbygeneralpublicis25 whichis7timesoftheactualpercentageofgaysandlesbians 30 Heuristics AvailabilityheuristicAretheremorewordsthatbeginwiththeletter k orhave k inthethirdpositioninthetextbook Easiertothinkwordsbeginwith k thanhave k inthethirdposition Travelbyplaneorbycar Peoplehascertainfeartotravelbyairplanes Actually airplanetravelingismuchsaferthandriving After9 11 peoplechoosetodriveinsteadoftakingairplanes andthenumberofdeathintravelaccidentsincreasedsignificantly 31 Heuristics AvailabilityheuristicChangeanswersinmultiplechoicequestionsImaginethatinansweringthemultiplechoicequestionsinaexam youansweredaquestion Butthen aftergivingitsomeadditionalthought youdecidedtochangeyouranswertoanotherchoice Wereyoumorelikelytochangefromwrongtorightorrighttowronganswer 32 Availabilityheuristic Asurveyof1561studentsonmultiplechoicequestions Ofthe3291answersthathasbeenchanged Fromwrongtowrong 23 Fromwrongtoright 51 Fromrighttowrong 25 However majorityofstudentsbelievedtheyshouldstickwiththeirfirstanswer Whydoesthishappen 33 Availabilityheuristic Instancesthatchangingfromrighttowronganswersaremorememorablethanthosethatchangingfromwrongtoright Ihadthatoneright insteadof Ihadthatonewrong Experiment participantscompletedamultiplechoicetest receivedanswerkeyshortly 4to6weekslater participantsrecalledinstancesinwhichtheychangedanswers Resultsshowedthatparticipantsoverestimatedrighttowrongchanges andunderestimatedwrongtorightchanges 34 Heuristics 35 CounterfactualThinking Imaginingalternativescenariosandoutcomesthatmighthavehappened butdidn tEvidences InOlympiccompetition bronzemedalists forwhomaneasilyimaginedalternativewasfinishingwithoutamedal exhibitmorejoythansilvermedalists whowouldmoreeasilyimaginehavingwonthegold Similarly theB studentswhomissesanA byapointfeelsworsethantheB studentswhojustmadeaB byapoint 36 CounterfactualThinking Regret Whatdoyouregretfor Thinkaboutthe3thingsyouregretmostinyourlife PeoplearelesslikelytoregretoverthingstheydidthanoverthingstheyfailedtodoExamples Peoplearelikelytoregretfornottakingtheireducationseriously notexpressingtheirromanticfeelingstowardsomeone 37 IllusoryThinking Oursearchfororderinrandomevents Illusorycorrelation Perceptionofarelationshipwherenoneexists orperceptionofastrongerrelationshipthanactuallyexistsReason Peopleeasilymisperceiverandomeventsasconfirmingtheirbeliefs i e whenwebelieveacorrelationexists wearemorelikelytonoticeandrecallconfirminginstances andignoreorforgetdisconfirminginstances ExamplesPMSJointpainsandrainingweatherOverweightwomenareunhappier Viken others 2005 38 IllusoryThinking IllusionofcontrolPerceptionofuncontrollableeventsassubjecttoone scontrolorasmorecontrollablethantheyareGamblingPeopleaskedfourtimesasmuchmoneyforsellingtheirlotteryticketiftheychosethenumbersthemselvesthanifthenumberswereassignedbyothers Langer 1977 Peoplebetmorewhenthrowthediceorspinsthewheel Wohl Enzle 2002 39 IllusoryThinking IllusionofcontrolRegressiontowardtheaverageStatisticaltendencyforextremescoresorextremebehaviortoreturntowardone saverageExperimentGoal Trainaimaginaryboytocometoschoolat8 30 Tools StrongpraisetostrongpunishmentTimetoarriveschool Thepraiseandpunishmenthavenoactualeffect Theboycometoschoolatarandomtimebetween8 20to8 40 generatedbycomputer Results participantsbelievedthatpunishmentiseffective Explanation participantsusedpunishmentwhentheboyisverylate andbecauseofregressiontowardtheaverage thenexttime theboyislikelytoarriveschoolearlier 40 MoodsandJudgments GoodandbadmoodstriggermemoriesofexperiencesassociatedwiththosemoodsInagoodmood afterreceivingagift peoplemorelikelyreportedthattheircarsandTVsetsworkingperfectlythanthoseinaneutralmood MoodscolorourinterpretationsofcurrentexperiencesandpredictionsoffutureeventsSportsfanspredictwarslesslikelytohappenwhentheirteamwinsthanwhentheirteamloses 41 MoodsandJudgments ExperimentVideotapedparticipants talkingwithanotherperson Thentheywereputineitheragoodorbadmood Ratedtheirownsocialskillsinthevideotapedconversation Atemporarygoodorbadmoodstronglyinfluencedpeople sratingsoftheirvideotapedbehavior Thoseinabadmooddetectedfarfewerpositivebehaviors 42 Outlines PerceivingsocialworldsJudgingsocialworldsExplainingsocialworldsEffectsofourexpectationofsocialworlds 43 ExplainingOurSocialWorld ImportanceofattributionUnhappyspouse Hewaslatebecausehedoesn tcareaboutme and Heboughtmeflowersbecausehewantssex Happyspouse Hewaslatebecauseofheavytraffic and Heboughtmeflowersbecausehelovesme 44 Misattribution Misattribution MistakenlyattributingabehaviortothewrongsourceMenaremorelikelythanwomentoattributeawoman sfriendliness warmthasasexualcome on especiallyformenwithhighpower Thismaycontributetosexualharassmentandevenrape 23 ofAmericanwomenreportedtheyhadbeenforcedintounwantedsex whileonly3 ofmensaidtheyhaddonethat 45 Misattribution ExcitationTransfer Dutton Aron 1974 MenwereapproachedbyanattractivewomanaftercrossingbridgeShakysuspensionbridgeStablebridgeAskedtoparticipateinashortstudy shownpicture askedtomakeupstory Womangivesphonenumberincaseparticipanthasquestionsaboutthestudy 46 47 Dutton Aron 1974 Comparedtothemenonstablebridge menonthesuspensionbridge UsedmoresexualimageryintheirstoriesMorelikelytocalltheattractivefemaleresearchassistant CallingExperimenter 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 StableBridge SuspensionBridge 48 Attributiontheory Theoryofhowpeopleexplainothers behaviorDispositionalattributionAttributeaperson sactionstosomethinginternaltothatpersonSituationalattributionAttributeaperson sactionstofactorsthatareexternaltothatperson 49 Kelley sCovariationTheory CovariationPrinciple 共變原則 tendencytoattributebehaviortofactorsthatarepresentwhenthebehavioroccurs andabsentwhenitisnot3kindsofcovariation Consistency whetherthebehavioroccursrepeatedlyinresponsetothissituation Distinctiveness whetherthebehaviorisspecifictoaparticularsituation Consensus whetherotherpeoplealsoproducethesamebehaviorinthesamesituation 50 Kelley sCovariationTheory 51 FundamentalAttributionError Tendencyforobserverstounderestimatesituationalinfluencesandoverestimatedispositionalinfluencesuponothers behaviorExperimentParticipantsreaddebaters speechessupportingorattackingCuba sleader Castro Participantsweretoldthedebaterseitherchosetheirpositionsorwereassignedapositionbyothers Ratingthedebaters realattitudes 52 FundamentalAttributionError Theratingswereaffectedbythedebater sposition evenwhentheirpositionwaschosenbyothers 53 Ross Amabile Steinmetz Participantswererandomlyassignedtoplay QuestionerContestantObserverQuestionerswereinstructedtowrite10challengingquestionsContestantsanswered4 10questionscorrectlyAllparticipantsratedgeneralknowledgeof QuestionersContestants 54 55 WhyDoWeMaketheAttributionError PerspectiveandsituationalawarenessActor observerperspectivesWhenweact theenvironmentcommandsourattention Whenweobserveotheracts thepersonisthecenterofattention PerspectiveschangewithtimeWhenwethinkaboutthepastself the pastself isthecenterofattention CameraperspectivebiasAsuspectconfessseemsgenuinewhenacamerafocusesonhimthanwhenacamerafocusedontheinterrogator 56 FundamentalAttributionErrorandCulture IstheFundamentalAttributionErroruniversal Morris Peng 1994 Englishvs Chinesenewspapers coverageof2murders ChinesephysicsstudentAmericanpostalworkerCoded ofdispositional situationalattributionsmadebyreportersSituationattributions Chinese AmericansDispositionalattributions Americans Chinese 57 Outline