DiscourseAnalysisandConversationAnalysis.ppt

1 Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2 Informationstructure3 Cohesionandcoherence4 Discoursemarkers 一 DiscourseAnalysis语篇分析 Whatisdiscourse Discourseis structural aunitoflanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause acontinuousstretchofspokenlanguagelargerthanasentence oftenconstitutingacoherentunit functional alanguageinuse astretchoflanguageperceivedtobemeaningfulunified andpurposive 一般来说 可以从形式 结构 formal structural 角度来给 语篇 下定义 也可以从功能呢的 functional 角度下定义 从结构方面看 语篇 是大于句子的语言单位 从语言学的角度看 词素小于词 词小于词组或短语 短语或词组小于分句或小句 分句或小句小于句子 句子小于语篇 从功能的角度看 语篇 是使用中的语言 Whatisdiscourseanalysis Discourseanalysisalsocalled Discourselinguistics discoursestudies textanalysis Thestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs conversations interviews etc 语篇分析 研究的是交际中的语言 它涉及的是语言与它的使用情景 即语境 之间的关系 语言的表达形式既可以是口头的 spoken 也可以是书面的 written 具体地说 交际中与语言使用有关的问题的都属于语篇分析的内容 TopicsofDiscourseAnalysis 1 Informationstructure 信息结构 2 Cohesion 衔接 3 Coherence 连贯 4 Discoursemakers 话语标记语 5 Conversationalanalysis 会话分析 1 Informationstructure 信息结构 Howdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse GivenandnewinformationTopicandcommentContrast Givenandnewinformation Giveninformation knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation unknowntotheaddressee Topicandcomment Topic话题 whattheutteranceisabout Comment述题 whatissaidaboutthetopic Contrast Contrast anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse CohesionandCoherence atextoradiscourseisnotjustaconcatenationofclauses itformsaunified coherentwhole Cohesion衔接thegrammaticaland orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofadiscourse Fivecohesivedevices Reference Substitution Ellipsis Conjunction Lexicalcohesion Reference参照 指称 therelationshipbetweenawordandwhatitpointstointherealworld Inourdiscussionofcohesion thatsortofreferenceiscalled presentedreference 给出的指称 i e itintroducessthnewtothetext asdistinctfrom presumedreference 假定指称 i e mentionedinsuchawaythatweneedtoretrievetheiridentityfromsomewhereelseinthetext Thecommonestpresumedreferenceitemsare Thedefinitearticlethe Demonstrativepronounsthis that these those Pronounshe she they it etc e g Thereisahouseneartheriver ThatisJohn s Substitution替代 thereplacementofoneitemwithanother Itisoftenusedtoavoidrepetition arelationbetweenwordsandconstructions andtheyhavesamefunction A I velostmydictionary substituted B Getanewone substitute Ellipsis省略 Leavingoutaconstructionofasentenceforreasonsofemphasisorstyle andtheomittedpartscanonlyberecoveredbythereaderfromthepreviousdiscourse Johnboughtsomechocolates andJoansomebiscuits A AreyouwatchingTV B Yes Iam Conjunction连词 Anitemoraprocesswhoseprimaryfunctionistoconnectwordsorotherconstruction Iwasnotinvited Otherwise Iwouldhavebeenthere coordinator并列连词 and but subordinator从属连词 because when conjunctiveadverbs连接副词 however indeed Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords i e thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接 Reiteration词项重现repetitionoflexicalitems Areiterateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem asynonymornear synonym asuper ordinate orageneralword 通过同一词项的复现 词项间的同义及近义关系 synonymy 或上下义关系 hyponymy 来实现衔接功能Thereisaboyplayingwithfire Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn ttakecare repetition Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn ttakecare synonym Collocation词项同现thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco occur 通过 经常共同出现的词项间的联系 来实现衔接功能 Morethan2000patientsaredyingannuallywhilewaitingfortransplants theshortageoforgansissoacute 每年有2000多个等待器官移植的病人濒于死亡 人体 器官的短缺非常严重 英语中transplant与organ具有限定和被限定的组合搭配的语义关系 organtransplant 英文就凭这种关系可将前后句有力的衔接起来 而汉译一开始只出现个 移植 便会使读者茫然 所以应作 器官移植 即由语义搭配关系的同现变成了 器官 这个词汇直接重复 从而保证译文的明确的连贯性 therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext Itconcernspeople sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword 1 GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge Andheisnowalawyer 2 GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge Heisnowalawyer Theabsenceoftheconjunctions and inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw Insummary therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible Coherence连贯 Discoursemarkers话语标记语 expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence conversationalparticles wellandohparentheticallexicalizedclauses y know Imeanandyousee connectiveelementsso afterall andmoreover Themainroleofdiscoursemarkers toguidespeaker sinterpretationsoftheutterances 二 ConversationAnalysis IntroductionConversationanalysis orCA isanapproachtothestudyoftalkininteraction 互动谈话 whichgrewoutoftheethnomethodologicaltraditioninsociologydevelopedbyHaroldGarfinkel 2 ThepurposeofCA tostudythesequentialstructureofnaturalconversation todiscoverhowthestructureandresourcesofnaturalconversationreflectspeakers socialknowledgeandsocialidentity 3 ThecentralfocusinCAistheorganizationofthemeaningfulconductofpeopleinsociety 4 Thecoreobjectiveforconversationalanalysisistoillustratehowactionsareproducedandinterpretedratherthanhowlanguageisorganizedasanisolatedphenomenon 开始于本世纪五六十年代的会话分析经过了过去几十年的发展 已经成为了一门具有自己完善的概念框架 记录规约 分析步骤的现代社会科学 它成功的在语言学 社会心理学和社会学之间架起了一座桥梁 它并不是指对于任何会话的分析 而是指发源于现象学 人类文化学以及日常语言哲学的一种研究方法 所以会话分析也并不像它的名称所表明的那样把研究范围仅仅局限于人们的会话行为 其研究范围涉及到了社会成员在他们的日常交际中出现的所有的社会行为 Development 第一阶段 1960年 1973年 以HarveySacks的早期作品为代表 通过谈话来分析日常活动的实践理性和社会认知准则时间 20世纪60年代 第二阶段 1974年 90年代 会话中一个最简单的话轮转换规则系统 发表为开端 以会话分析的静态研究为主 第三阶段 90年代 至今 进入会话分析的动态研究阶段 Somedifferenttypesofspeechmightbe 1 telephonecalls businessandprivate 2 Serviceencounters shops ticketoffices 3 Interviews jobs journalistic inofficialsetting 4 Classroom class lectures 5 Rituals churchprayers sermons weddings 6 Monologues speeches stories jokes 7 Language in action talkaccompanyingdoing fixing cooking assembling demonstrating 8 Casualconversation strangers friends intimates 9 Organizinganddirectingpeople work home inthestreet Threeimportantterms 1 Turn taking话轮替换2 Adjacencypairs比邻应对3 Exchange会话回合 1 definition AccordingtoHarveySacks thefounderoftheconversationanalyticmethod thebasicunitoftheconversationisthe turn thatis ashiftinthedirectionofthespeaking flow whichischaracteristicofnormalconversation 1 Turn taking 2 rules A whenthecurrentspeakerreachesapointatwhichhisturnmaybedone oneofthethreethingshappens a Peopletaketurnswhentheyareselectedbythecurrentspeaker 通常通过建议 提问等方式选定下一个说话人 例如 Whatdoyouthinkaboutit Tom Tommayhaveabetteridea NowwewouldliketohearJohn sviewonthis Anyotheropinionsorfurthercommentsonthismatter b Ifnooneisselected theymayspeakoftheirownaccord self selection c Ifnooneelsetakesaturn thepersonwhoiscurrentlyspeakingmaycontinue B Whicheveroftheseoptionshasbeentakenup thesamesetofoptionsappliesforthenextturn 话轮构建单位 turn constructionunit 话轮构建单位是用来构建话轮的语法单位 可以是句子 分句 短语 单词 交际者可在话轮构建的过程中推断出话轮构建成分的类型以及可能的结束点 推断的方式 语法 语调 语用 1 Wordservesasturn taking A Hello John B Hello 2 Phrasesservesasturn taking A Ihaveoneclassintheevening B OnMonday A No onTuesday 1 说话人的开场白用语 Guesswhat lovelydayCanIhelpyou Excuseme 2 保证自己讲话得以继续 WhatI mtryingtosayis 3 说话人改变话题的过渡 Bytheway 4 结束话题 Sorry butIhavetogonow nicetotalktoyou Turn allocationcomponent 话轮分配部分 1 由现谈话人选定下一个谈话人 2 由下一个谈话人自行选择 包括可能抢先说话或者出乎意料地插话 3 由当前说话人继续说话 特征 1 每次交换涉及两个语段 2 两个语段相互语段 3 两个语段由两个人分别说出 4 邻近配对的第一配对部分在第二部分之前出现 5 邻近配对的第一部分制约第二部分例如 A Couldyoutellmewherethelibraryis B Doyouknowwherethethirdcanteenis A IsthatnearthezijingRoad B Yes Thelibraryisjustoppositethethirdcanteen A OK thenIknow 2 adjacency Exchangecomprisesatleastaninitiationfromonespeakerandaresponsefromanother Themostobviousexampleisaquestion answerpair 教师 initiation学生 response教师 follow up feedback 3 Exchange Examples T Whatdoesthefoodgiveyou P Strength T Notonlystrength wehaveanotherwordforit P Energy T Goodgirl energy yes T NowMaria youaskMary Maria Whatdidyoudoattheweekend Mary IwenttoWales T Good nowMary youaskMaria Mary Whatdidyoudoattheweekend Maria Istayedathome 话语并不局限于会话 会话是话语的一种最基本的形式 也是话语分析家研究最多的一种话语形式 二者的目标相同 Bothapproachesarecentrallyconcernedwithgivinganaccountofhowcoherenceandsequentialorganizationindiscourseisproducedandunderstood 二者在研究方法和途径上有区别 Levinson认为话语分析家采用的是语言学研究中典型的方法和原则 实质上是把语言学中运用得很成功的那一套技巧延伸到句子范围之外 扩大到话语范围中去 在判断话语的连贯性时 常凭借本能 会话分析的不同之处在于它避免了先入为主的理论框架 采用了以经验为基础的归纳法 从大量自然会话的资料中去寻找反复出现的模式 从中归纳出规律来 三 Howtodoanalysisconversation Asinallresearch conversationalanalysisbeginsbysettinguparesearchproblem ThedatacollectedforCAisintheformofvideooraudiorecordedconversations Thedataiscollectedwithorwithoutresearchers involvement oftensimplybyaddingavideocameratotheroomwheretheconversationtakesplace e g medicaldoctorsconsultationwithapatient Fromtheaudioorvideorecordingtheresearchersconstructadetailedtranscription ideallywithnodetailsleftout Aftertranscription theresearchersperforminductivedata drivenanalysisaimingtofindrecurringpatternsofinteraction Themeaningofdoinganalysisconversation Conversationanalysis commonlyabbreviatedasCA isanapproachtothestudyofsocialinteraction embracingbothverbalandnon verbalconduct insituationsofeverydaylife Asitsnameimplies CAbeganwithafocusoncasualconversation butitsmethodsweresubsequentlyadaptedtoembracemoretask andinstitution centeredinteractions suchasthoseoccurringindoctors offices courts lawenforcement educationalsettings andthemassmedia Asaconsequence theterm conversationanalysis hasbecomesomethingofamisnomer butithascontinuedasatermforadistinctiveandsuccessfulapproachtotheanalysisofsocialinteraction Applicationinotherfields Inrecentyears CAhasbeenemployedbyresearchersinotherfields suchasfeminismandfeministlinguistics orusedincomplementwithothertheories suchasMembershipCategorizationAnalysis MCA Whymakearecord Evenifwehadbeentakingnoteswhileitwashappening wecan tbesurewe dgotthingsdownaccurately andwe dprobablyhavemissedquitealot 1It sbettertohaveavideotape oranaudiotape2Listen orwatch Treatthesceneasifitwasin realtime knowingthatyouwouldn tbeabletoreplayitlater 3Takenoteswhileit splayingandthenseewhatyoucanaddtothatbyusingyourmemory 4Thencheckwhatyou vewrittenagainstafurtherreplay You llprobablyfindthatyou vemissedacertainamount Howtodo 1 Takeafewmomentstoplaythroughthetapeandmakenotesonwhatmoreyoucanhear Atthesametime considerwhetheryou repickingisworthnoticing 2 addmoredetailsofthetalktothenotesthatyouhavetaken 3 thinkabouttheactionsandthesceneryintheconversation4 Weneedsomethingasfaithfulto whatwassaid aspossible andcleanupsomemessinesstomakeaneattranscript Transcript Theoriginal Addsomedetails Final adddetailsactionssceneryandsoon 四 TheTheoryofConversationAnalysis Ethnomethodologyisamethodforunderstandingthesocialorderspeopleusetomakesenseoftheworldthroughanalysingtheiraccountsanddescriptionsoftheirday to dayexperiences Itisaradicalbreachfromtraditionalsociologicalmodesofthinking ThetermitselfwasoriginallycoinedbyHaroldGarfinkelin1954 Ethnomethodology民族学方法论 Theterm sEthnomethodologycanbebrokendownintoitsthreeconstituentparts ethno method ologyEthno aparticularsocio culturalgroup Method themethodsandpracticesthisparticulargroupemploysinitseverydayactivities Ology thesystematicdescriptionofthesemethodsandpractices 常人方法学认为 在日常实践过程中 行动 说明和场景构成了复杂的整体 它们之间存在着复杂的辨证关系 它们互为条件使实践行动具有反身性 这就是说 行动与环境是不断处于相互建构之中的 在常人方法学看来 对人们行动的理解应该是对其实践系统的理解 Reflexivity反身性 人们的日常生活中的沟通和社会行动具有 索引性 即当事人的实践活动运用共同完成且未经申明的假设和共享知识进行 行动的 无尽索引性 表明 对它们的意义必须诉诸索引及其行动表达的意义才能理解 比如加芬克尔发现 在日常谈话中人们之间的互相理解不仅基于当事人说出来的东西 而且根据大量谈话中未提到的因素 即言外之意 Indexicality索引性 EthnomethodologyandConversationAnalysis BothEMandCAareindependentformsofinvestigation ThereisnonecessaryconnectionbetweenEMandCAstudiesintermsofprinciplesormethods EMandCAstudiesmayoverlapintermsofinterestsandprojects CAstudiesmustadheretothefoundationaltenantsofEMstudiesinordertobeconsideredproperlyethnomethodological EMstudiesmayutiliseCAmethods asanecdotaldescriptions assubstantivefindings orassupplementalfindingsgermanetotheinsitufindingsofaparticularEMstudy Bothdisciplinescanfunctionverywellwithouttheother butinasmuchastheirinterestscoincideinanygiveninstance bothcanprofitfromtheunderstandingoftheothersinvestigationalmethodsandfindings Theethnographyofcommunication formerlycalledtheethnographyofspeaking istheanalysisofcommunicationwithinthewidercontextofthesocialandculturalpracticesandbeliefsofthemembersofaparticularcultureorspeechcommunity EthnographyofCommunication言语交际民俗学 Theethnographyofspeakingisconcernedwiththesituationsanduses thepatternsandfuntions ofspeakingasanactivityinitsownright Hymes 1962 EssentialConcepts SpeechCommunity言语社团 Hymesinsiststhatallmembersofaspeechcommunitysharenotonlythesamerulesforspeaking butatleastonelinguisticvarityaswell 同一个言语社团 1 成员有共同一种的谈话规则 2 成员至少共享一种语言变体 Situation EventandAct情境 事件 行为 Hymesthinksthatanestedhierarchyofunitscalledspeechsituation speechevent andspeechactwillbeusefulinthestudyofcommunicativebehavior Inthisthreeunithierarchy Speechactsarepartofspeecheventswhichare inturn partofspeechsituations SpeechSituation notpurelycommunicative maybecomposedofbothcommunicativeandotherkindsofevents Speechevent takesplacewithinaspeechsituationandiscomposedofoneormorespeechacts Speechact thesimplest becauseitistheminimaltermoftheset TheSpeakingModel AmodelthatHymesdevelopedasaframeworkfortheanalysisofaspeecheventwithinitsculturalcontextisthemnemonicSPEAKINGmodel Themodelconsistsofsixteencomponents whichHymesbelievedwerenecessarytoconsiderinordertoaccuratelyandsatisfactorilydescribeanyparticularspeechevent ThesesixteencomponentsareorganizedintoeightdivisionstoformtheacronymSPEAKING S settingandscene wherethespeecheventislocatedintimeandspaceP participants whotakespartinthespeecheventE ends whatthepurposeofthespeecheventis andwhatitsoutcomeismeanttobeA actsequence whatspeechactsmakeupthespeechevent andwhatordertheyareperformedinK key thetoneormannerofperformanceI instrumentalities whatchannelormediumofcommunicationisused andwhatlanguage varietyisselectedfromtheparticipants repertoireN normsofinteraction whattherulesareforproducingandinterpretingspeechactsG genres what type doesaspeecheventbelongto andwhatotherpre existingconventionalformsofspeecharedrawnonor cited inproducingappropriatecontributionstotalk TheSpeakingModel InteractionalSociolinguistics互动社会语言学developedbyJohnGumperz 会话过程绝不是一个简单的罗列词语的过程 研究语言和非语言知识在会话过程中的作用以及说话人的社会文化背景如何跟这些知识相互影响 Concept 互动社会语言学是研究会话参与者通过语境线索和背景知识对发话人的交际意图作出推理 判断和背景知识对发话人的交际意图作出推理 判断和回应的互动过程 互动社会语言学 1 互动社会语言学继承了会话分析的观点认为会话是由按顺序组织起来的话语交流构成的而且会话以某种方式创造了它自己的交际生态环境2 在互动社会语言学中会话推断是话语理解的情境化或语境化过程通过会话推断交际参与者评估双方的目的并以此为基础作出相应的反应 与会话分析的学术渊源 核心概念 互动社会语言学把两个或以上的个体参与的话语交流作为研究的主要目标侧重分析意义生成的过程 以及被人们想当然的背景预设其目的在于展示交际者如何使用话语在日常交际场景中达到自己的交际目的 研究目标 互动社会语言学的整体目标是言语行为作为交际行为在社会生活中的功能 以及包含言语内容的互动交际行为的整体意义 互动社会语言学能够更深入 更详细地探索社会交际实践的各个维度和过程 因为互动社会语言学强调交际者的主体建构作用 强调语言与语境的互动关系 强调语境提示的动态本质 强调影响会话推断和会话释义的言语和非言语线索 意义 在会话分析中的应用 互动社会语言学运用阐释性研究方法 通过检查会话人是否成功地确立了共同的谈话主题 是否保持了主题在谈话过程中的延续性 或者是否顺利地