胡壮麟语言学总复习ppt.ppt

Contents Chapter1LanguageandLinguisticsChapter2SpeechSounds phoneticsandPhonologyChapter3WordsandMorphologyChapter4Sentences SyntaxChapter5Meaning SemanticsChapter6Meaninginuse PragmaticsChapter7Language CultureandThoughtChapter8LanguageAcquisitionandLearningChapter9Schoolsoflinguistics Chapter1LanguageandLinguistics 1 1LanguageandHuman1 2Designfeaturesoflanguage1 3FunctionsofLanguage1 4Linguisticsanditsbranches1 5BasicConceptsinlinguistics 1 1Definitionoflanguage IntheTextbookLanguageisameansofverbalcommunication Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcures motivation andsocial culturalrolesLanguage Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication 1 2Designfeaturesoflanguage Designfeatures Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication Arbitrariness Productivity Duality Displacement Culturaltransmission Arbitrariness Arbitrarinessreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichrevealsthatthereisnodirectnaturallinkbetweenthelinguisticformanditsmeaning However languageisnotentirelyarbitrary Therearewordswhicharecreatedintheimitationofsounds Butthenon arbitrarywordsarequitelimitedinnumber Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary Why Languageisarbitraryinnature itisnotentirelyarbitrary becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent forexample theonomatopoeia wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang crash etc Takecompoundsforanotherexample Thetwoelements photo and copy in photocopy arenon motivated butthecompoundisnotarbitrary Productivity Productivityreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichenableslanguagetogeneratenewutterancesbyitsusers Thepropertyoflanguageenablesustoexpressourunlimitedandnewideas Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive Duality Dualityisthenatureoflanguagewhichshowsthatlanguageisasystemandconsistsoftwosetsofstructure ortwolevels oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings Atthelowerorthebasiclevel thereisthestructureofsounds whicharemeaningless discrete individualsounds Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbecombinedaccordingtorulesintounitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords which atthehigherlevel canbearrangedintosentences Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit Displacement Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent realorimaginedmattersinthepast present orfuture orinfar awayplaces Inotherwords languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeakerAnimalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation Culturaltransmission Culturaltransmissionisthepropertyoflanguagewhichrequiresushumantolearnalanguage Humanbeingswerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage Thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmittedorpasseddownbyinstinct Theyhavetobetaughtandlearned butanimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytrans mitted Discreteness Discretenessisthepropertyoflanguagewhichenablesthespeakersofalanguagetoidentifythesoundelementsinitswords Eachsoundisdiscreteanddistinctandthuscanbecombinedtogethertomakedifferentforms Itisthestructuralfeatureoflanguagethatwordsaremadeupofelementalsounds 1 3Functionsoflanguage Malinowski pragmaticfunction magicalfunction phaticfunctionJakobson referential poetic emotive conative phatic metaligualfunctionHalliday metafunctions ideationalfunction interpersonalfunction textualfunction 1 4Linguisticsanditsbranches BasicbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics speechsoundsPhonology rulesinspeechsoundsMorphology wordsandtheirformationSyntax rulesofsentencesSemantics meaning Grammar Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Otherbranchesoflinguistics PragmaticsAnthropologicallinguisticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsNeurolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguistics 1 5SomeconceptsinLinguistics DescriptivevsprescriptiveSynchronicvsdiachronicSpeechandwritingLangueandparoleCompetenceandperformance 1 PrescriptiveandDescriptive Prescriptivismprescribesrulesofwhatiscorrect ItcreatesrulesofgrammarDescriptivismdescribethewaypeopleactuallyspeakandwritetheirlanguage nottoprescribehowtheyoughttospeakorwrite Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar Traditionalgram marisprescriptive itisbasedon high religious literary writtenlan guage Itsetsgrammaticalrulesandimposestherulesonlanguageusers ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive Itcollectsauthentic andmainlyspokenlanguagedataandthenitstudiesanddescribesthedatainanobjectiveandscientificway 2 SynchronicandDiachronic ThediachronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageThesynchronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageatasinglepointoftime Synchronicdescriptionhaspriorityoverdiachronicdescription Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy thede scriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy Asynchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime 3 LangueandParole Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole Thedistinctionbetweenlangue andparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules Langueisabstract itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse butparoleisconcrete itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents Langueisrelativelystable itdoesnotchangefrequently whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson andfromsituationtosituation 4 Competenceandperformance ChomskyCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemofabstractformalrelationsPerformancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten Theinfinitevariedindividualactsofverbalbehaviorwiththeirirregularities inconsistenciesanderrors Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance AmericanlinguistN Chomskyinthelate1950 sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous AccordingtoChomsky performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication Althoughthespeaker sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress embarrassment etc Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence whichissystematic nottheperformance whichistoohaphazard Saussure sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences AlthoughSaussure sdistinctionandChomsky sareverysimilar theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamaterofsocialconventions andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual Speechandwriting Speechandwritingaretwosystemsoflanguage Speechhaspriorityoverwriting Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary notthewritten First thespokenformispriortothewrittenformandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformoflan guage Second thespokenformplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedanditservesawiderrangeofpurposesFinally thespokenformisthemediumthroughwhichweacquireourmothertongue Ofthetwomediaoflanguage whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting 1 Inlinguisticevolution speechispriortowriting 2 Ineverydaycommunication speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed 3 Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue andwritingislearnedandtaughtlateratschool ChapterTwo Speechsounds phoneticsandphonology 2 1Phonetics2 2Phonology 2 1Phonetics Phonetics thescientificstudyofspeechsounds concerningwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds Speechisachainwiththreestages productionofthemessage thetransmissionofthemessageandthereceptionofthemessageSophoneticsareinthreebranches articulatoryphonetics identificationandclassificationofindividualsounds acousticphonetics analysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves thephysicalfeaturesofspeechsounds andauditoryphonetics perceptionofspeech Speechsoundsandnon speechsounds Wecanmakeavarietyofsounds Butwechoosesomeoftheminourspeech Wemakesoundsbymeansoftheairoutoforintoourbody Sowehave Pulmonicandnon pulmonicspeechsoundsinourspeech Pulmonicegressiveairstreamvsnonpulmonicingressiveairstream Articulationofsounds Speechorgans lungs trachea larynx pharyngeal oralcavities andnasalcavities Glottis vocalfoldsVoicing vibrationofthevocalfolds voicedandvoiceless someconsonantsandallvowels Descriptionofspeechsounds WeusePhoneticAlphabetstodescribespeechsoundsInternationalPhoneticalphabet IPA auniquewrittenrepresentation alistofsymbols ofeverysoundineverylanguageDiacritics anymarkinsounddescriptionadditionaltolettersorotherbasicelements Narrowdescription detailedBroaddescription general Consonants Consonantsareproducedbytemporarilyobstructingorrestrictingtheairstreamasitpassesthroughthemouth Consonantsmaybedividedintotwogroupsintermsof2dimensions theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation Vowels Vowelsarecharacterizedbytheabsenceofobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth TheyareproducedwithoutanyobstructionorrestrictionoftheairstreamThreedimensionsfortheconfigurationofthevowels openness backnessandroundingEachofthedimensionsiscontinuous thedifferencebetweenanytwovowelsintermsoftheopenness backnessandroundingisalwaysamatterofmoreorlessVowelscanbedistinguishedasoralvowelsandnasalvowels Cardinalvowels 8primarycardinalvowelsanother8cardinalvowels thesecondarycardinalvowels thefrontroundedandthebackunroundedMonophthong avowelwhosequalityremainsstableduringitsproductionisknownasmonophthong Diphthong Avowelwhosequalitychangedduringitsproduction infactacombinationoftwomonophthongsisknownasdiphthong Givethecorrecttechnicaltermsforthefollowingexpressions BothlipsbilabialOpeningbetweenvocalcordsvoicelessTeethdentalHardroofofmouthpalatalRidgebehindupperteechalveolarLowerliptoupperteethlabiodentalBackoftonguetosoftrearroofofmouthvelar Writethecorrespondingsoundsegmentsaccordingtothedescriptions a Voicelessbilabialstop p b Voicedalveolarnasal n c Voicedvelarstop d Centrallaxunroundedvowel e Highbacktenseroundedvowel u Foreachgroupofsoundslistedbelow statethephoneticfeatureorfeatureswhichtheyallshare a f v s fricativeb i i e e frontc d l s z t alveolard b d g plosive voicede j w voiced Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels 1 Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront centralandbackintermsofthepositionofthetongueinthemouth 2 Accordingtohowwideourmouthisopened weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups closevowels semi closevowels semi openvowels andopenvowels 3 Accordingtotheshapeofthelips vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels 4 TheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowelsaccordingtothelengthofthesound 2 2Phonology Soundpatterns Phonologyfocusesonthelinguistic phonological rulesthatareusedtospecifythemannerinwhichspeechsoundsareorganizedandcombinedintomeaningfulunits whicharethencombinedtoformsyllables wordsandsentences Soundsarechosentobecombinedindifferentlanguages numberandtype Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics Theydifferintheirapproachandfocus Phoneticsisofageneralnature itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages howtheyareproduced howtheydifferfromeachother whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess howtheycanbeclassified Phonology ontheotherhand isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication Assimilation aruleforneighbouringsounds Soundsinneighbourhoodmayinfluenceeachother l and r becomesvoicelesswhentheyfollow s p t and k asinslay pray tray andclay Vowelsbecomeabitlongerwhentheyarebeforevoicedconsonants asinlipandlid bitandbid Vowelsbeforeanasalconsonantbecomenasalized e g fan beam Phonologicalrules generalform A B C DNasalizationrule vowel nasal nasalAspirationrule voicelessstop aspirated wordinitiallyandinitiallyinstressedsyllablesSequentialrule asyllablesequence CCC V CCCC Consonantclustersinsyllableinitialpositionmustfollowthefollowingsequence s p t k w r l j Assimilationrules twophonemesbecomeidenticalorsimilarwhenadjacenttoeachother forinstance nasalization devoicing velarization aspiration dentalizationDeletionandepenthesis thedroppingofcertainsoundortheaddingofcertainsound Ruleordering Rulesmustbeappliedaccordingtocertainsequence Forinstance thepluralformofdesk bedandbusfollowsthreerulesinsurfaceoutput a The s appearsaftervoicelesssounds Devoicingruleb The z appearsaftervoicedsoundsBasicformc The z appearsaftersibilantsEpenthesisDevoicing z s voice C Epenthesis sibilant z Ruleordering Theapplicationoftherulesfollowsthesequence epenthesis devoicing desk z bed z b s z N AN A sN AN Adesksbedzb s zIfweapplythedevoicingrulefirst thentheepenthesisrule desk z bed z b s z sN AsN AN A desksbedzb s s Phonemeandallophone Anabstractunitofspeechsoundisaphoneme Itisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits AnditcandistinguishmeaningE g seedanddeedAphonemehasdifferentrealizationsinspeech Thedifferentrealizationsmaketheallophonesofthesamephoneme Forinstance l aredifferentinthewordslapandpull Butthedifferencedoesnotmakedifferentmeaning Minimalpairandminimalset Aphonemecanbecheckedbycomparingtwowordswhicharesimilarinallmembersexceptoneinthesameposition Forinstance manandmen bitandpit seedanddeedWecallthesepairsofwordsasminimalpairs Andthoseingroup likebit pit sit lit fit wit etc asminimalset Distinctivefeatures Aphonemeisdifferentfromanotherforaparticulardifferentfeature wecallthisfeature ormanyotherfeaturesfordistinctionofphonemesasdistinctivefeatures VoicedandVoiceless RoundedandUnrounded3distinctivefeaturesrelatingtotonguebodyfeatures high low and back InterruptedandstridentTenseandlax Complementarydistribution Whentwoormoresoundsneveroccurinanidenticalphonemiccontextorenvironment theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution h and p and pH Allallophonesareindistribution Inwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning Ifitdoes thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes 2 4SuprasegmentalFeatures Thefeaturesofspeechontheunitswhicharelargerthanindividualsounds segments Fouraspects syllable stress pitch intonationandtone Syllable Asyllablecontainsacenter whichisloudandhasno littleobstruction Beforethiscentertheremaybethegreaterobstructiontoairflow 3partsofasyllable onset peak codaOpensyllable withoutcodaClosedsyllable withacoda SonorityscaleofSyllables Asyllableconsistsofaprominentorsonorouspeak usuallyavowel sometimessurroundedbyconsonantsthatdecreaseinsonoritytowardstheedges Thesonorityscaleisalistofphoneticsegmentsshowingtherelativeresonanceofphoneticsegmentsinrelationtoothersegments obstruents nasals liquids glides vowels SONORITYSCALE 5 VOWELS a i u 4 GLIDES j w 3 LIQUIDS l r 2 NASALS m n N 1 FRICATIVES AFFRICATES STOPS Sonorityscale Thiscanhelpusunderstandthepossiblesequenceinsoundcombination Forexample lkaps Stress Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable Itisarelativenotion Syllableprominence asyllableismoreprominentthanothersinawordorphrasePrimarystressandsecondarystress StresspatternsmakerhythmicunitsinspeechorpoemsStressmaybemeaningful makessyntacticdifference Pitch Pitchdependsonthevibrationofthevocalcords ahighfrequencyofvibrationofasoundmakesithaveahighpitch Achangeinpitchmayproduceavowelmoreloudly andlongerthanothervowels Sostressedsyllableistheresultofpitchheight Pitchpatterns steady rising falling Fallingpitchismorecommoninlanguagethanrisingpitch Intonation Intonation Thepitchdifferencesthatextendoverphoneticunitslargerthanthesyllable Functionsofintonation groupingofwords emphasizingwords differentiatingmeanings Tone Tone differencesinpitchwhichcancausechangesofwordmeaningTonelanguages Chinese stresslanguages English andpitchaccentlanguages Japanese Illustratewithexampleshowsuprasegmentalfeaturescanaffectmeaning 1 ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning suchas importandim port Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompounds isthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress forexample blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird whichisnotnecessarilyblack butablack birdisabirdthatisblack 2 Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns verbsadjectives adverbs etcarepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect Takethesentence Heisdrivingmycar forexample Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis oryours butmine thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed 3 Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation knownasthefourtones Whenspokenindifferenttones thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings Generallyspeaking thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight forward matter of factstatemen