胡壮麟语言学总复习pptPPT课件.ppt

Contents Chapter1LanguageandLinguisticsChapter2SpeechSounds phoneticsandPhonologyChapter3WordsandMorphologyChapter4Sentences SyntaxChapter5Meaning SemanticsChapter6Meaninginuse PragmaticsChapter7Language CultureandThoughtChapter8LanguageAcquisitionandLearningChapter9Schoolsoflinguistics 1 Chapter1LanguageandLinguistics 1 1LanguageandHuman1 2Designfeaturesoflanguage1 3FunctionsofLanguage1 4Linguisticsanditsbranches1 5BasicConceptsinlinguistics 2 1 1Definitionoflanguage IntheTextbookLanguageisameansofverbalcommunication Itisinstrumentalinthatcommunicatingbyspeakingorwritingisapurposefulact Itissocialandconventionalinthatlanguageisasocialsemioticandcommunicationcanonlytakeplaceeffectivelyifalltheusersshareabroadunderstandingofhumaninteractionincludingsuchassociatedfactorsasnonverbalcures motivation andsocial culturalrolesLanguage Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication 3 1 2Designfeaturesoflanguage Designfeatures Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication Arbitrariness Productivity Duality Displacement Culturaltransmission 4 Arbitrariness Arbitrarinessreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichrevealsthatthereisnodirectnaturallinkbetweenthelinguisticformanditsmeaning However languageisnotentirelyarbitrary Therearewordswhicharecreatedintheimitationofsounds Butthenon arbitrarywordsarequitelimitedinnumber Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions 5 Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary Why Languageisarbitraryinnature itisnotentirelyarbitrary becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent forexample theonomatopoeia wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang crash etc Takecompoundsforanotherexample Thetwoelements photo and copy in photocopy arenon motivated butthecompoundisnotarbitrary 6 Productivity Productivityreferstothepropertyoflanguagewhichenableslanguagetogeneratenewutterancesbyitsusers Thepropertyoflanguageenablesustoexpressourunlimitedandnewideas Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive 7 Duality Dualityisthenatureoflanguagewhichshowsthatlanguageisasystemandconsistsoftwosetsofstructure ortwolevels oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings Atthelowerorthebasiclevel thereisthestructureofsounds whicharemeaningless discrete individualsounds Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbecombinedaccordingtorulesintounitsofmeaningsuchasmorphemesandwords which atthehigherlevel canbearrangedintosentences Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit 8 Displacement Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent realorimaginedmattersinthepast present orfuture orinfar awayplaces Inotherwords languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeakerAnimalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation 9 Culturaltransmission Culturaltransmissionisthepropertyoflanguagewhichrequiresushumantolearnalanguage Humanbeingswerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage Thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmittedorpasseddownbyinstinct Theyhavetobetaughtandlearned butanimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytrans mitted 10 Discreteness Discretenessisthepropertyoflanguagewhichenablesthespeakersofalanguagetoidentifythesoundelementsinitswords Eachsoundisdiscreteanddistinctandthuscanbecombinedtogethertomakedifferentforms Itisthestructuralfeatureoflanguagethatwordsaremadeupofelementalsounds 11 1 3Functionsoflanguage Malinowski pragmaticfunction magicalfunction phaticfunctionJakobson referential poetic emotive conative phatic metaligualfunctionHalliday metafunctions ideationalfunction interpersonalfunction textualfunction 12 1 4Linguisticsanditsbranches BasicbranchesoflinguisticsPhonetics speechsoundsPhonology rulesinspeechsoundsMorphology wordsandtheirformationSyntax rulesofsentencesSemantics meaning Grammar Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics 13 Otherbranchesoflinguistics PragmaticsAnthropologicallinguisticsPsycholinguisticsSociolinguisticsNeurolinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsComputationallinguistics 14 1 5SomeconceptsinLinguistics DescriptivevsprescriptiveSynchronicvsdiachronicSpeechandwritingLangueandparoleCompetenceandperformance 15 1 PrescriptiveandDescriptive Prescriptivismprescribesrulesofwhatiscorrect ItcreatesrulesofgrammarDescriptivismdescribethewaypeopleactuallyspeakandwritetheirlanguage nottoprescribehowtheyoughttospeakorwrite 16 Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar Traditionalgram marisprescriptive itisbasedon high religious literary writtenlan guage Itsetsgrammaticalrulesandimposestherulesonlanguageusers ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive Itcollectsauthentic andmainlyspokenlanguagedataandthenitstudiesanddescribesthedatainanobjectiveandscientificway 17 2 SynchronicandDiachronic ThediachronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageThesynchronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageatasinglepointoftime Synchronicdescriptionhaspriorityoverdiachronicdescription 18 Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy thede scriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy Asynchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime 19 3 LangueandParole 20 Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole Thedistinctionbetweenlangue andparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules Langueisabstract itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse butparoleisconcrete itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents Langueisrelativelystable itdoesnotchangefrequently whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson andfromsituationtosituation 21 4 Competenceandperformance ChomskyCompetencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemofabstractformalrelationsPerformancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten Theinfinitevariedindividualactsofverbalbehaviorwiththeirirregularities inconsistenciesanderrors 22 Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance AmericanlinguistN Chomskyinthelate1950 sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous AccordingtoChomsky performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication Althoughthespeaker sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress embarrassment etc Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence whichissystematic nottheperformance whichistoohaphazard 23 Saussure sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences AlthoughSaussure sdistinctionandChomsky sareverysimilar theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamaterofsocialconventions andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviesandtohim competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual 24 Speechandwriting Speechandwritingaretwosystemsoflanguage Speechhaspriorityoverwriting 25 Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary notthewritten First thespokenformispriortothewrittenformandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformoflan guage Second thespokenformplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedanditservesawiderrangeofpurposesFinally thespokenformisthemediumthroughwhichweacquireourmothertongue 26 Ofthetwomediaoflanguage whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting 1 Inlinguisticevolution speechispriortowriting 2 Ineverydaycommunication speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed 3 Speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue andwritingislearnedandtaughtlateratschool 27 ChapterTwo Speechsounds phoneticsandphonology 2 1Phonetics2 2Phonology 28 2 1Phonetics Phonetics thescientificstudyofspeechsounds concerningwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds Speechisachainwiththreestages productionofthemessage thetransmissionofthemessageandthereceptionofthemessageSophoneticsareinthreebranches articulatoryphonetics identificationandclassificationofindividualsounds acousticphonetics analysisandmeasurementofsoundwaves thephysicalfeaturesofspeechsounds andauditoryphonetics perceptionofspeech 29 Speechsoundsandnon speechsounds Wecanmakeavarietyofsounds Butwechoosesomeoftheminourspeech Wemakesoundsbymeansoftheairoutoforintoourbody Sowehave Pulmonicandnon pulmonicspeechsoundsinourspeech Pulmonicegressiveairstreamvsnonpulmonicingressiveairstream 30 Articulationofsounds Speechorgans lungs trachea larynx pharyngeal oralcavities andnasalcavities Glottis vocalfoldsVoicing vibrationofthevocalfolds voicedandvoiceless someconsonantsandallvowels 31 Descriptionofspeechsounds WeusePhoneticAlphabetstodescribespeechsoundsInternationalPhoneticalphabet IPA auniquewrittenrepresentation alistofsymbols ofeverysoundineverylanguageDiacritics anymarkinsounddescriptionadditionaltolettersorotherbasicelements Narrowdescription detailedBroaddescription general 32 Consonants Consonantsareproducedbytemporarilyobstructingorrestrictingtheairstreamasitpassesthroughthemouth Consonantsmaybedividedintotwogroupsintermsof2dimensions theplaceofarticulationandthemannerofarticulation 33 34 Vowels Vowelsarecharacterizedbytheabsenceofobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth TheyareproducedwithoutanyobstructionorrestrictionoftheairstreamThreedimensionsfortheconfigurationofthevowels openness backnessandroundingEachofthedimensionsiscontinuous thedifferencebetweenanytwovowelsintermsoftheopenness backnessandroundingisalwaysamatterofmoreorlessVowelscanbedistinguishedasoralvowelsandnasalvowels 35 Cardinalvowels 8primarycardinalvowelsanother8cardinalvowels thesecondarycardinalvowels thefrontroundedandthebackunroundedMonophthong avowelwhosequalityremainsstableduringitsproductionisknownasmonophthong Diphthong Avowelwhosequalitychangedduringitsproduction infactacombinationoftwomonophthongsisknownasdiphthong 36 37 38 Givethecorrecttechnicaltermsforthefollowingexpressions BothlipsbilabialOpeningbetweenvocalcordsvoicelessTeethdentalHardroofofmouthpalatalRidgebehindupperteechalveolarLowerliptoupperteethlabiodentalBackoftonguetosoftrearroofofmouthvelar 39 Writethecorrespondingsoundsegmentsaccordingtothedescriptions a Voicelessbilabialstop p b Voicedalveolarnasal n c Voicedvelarstop d Centrallaxunroundedvowel e Highbacktenseroundedvowel u 40 Foreachgroupofsoundslistedbelow statethephoneticfeatureorfeatureswhichtheyallshare a f v s fricativeb i i e e frontc d l s z t alveolard b d g plosive voicede j w voiced 41 Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels 1 Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront centralandbackintermsofthepositionofthetongueinthemouth 2 Accordingtohowwideourmouthisopened weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups closevowels semi closevowels semi openvowels andopenvowels 3 Accordingtotheshapeofthelips vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels 4 TheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowelsaccordingtothelengthofthesound 42 2 2Phonology Soundpatterns Phonologyfocusesonthelinguistic phonological rulesthatareusedtospecifythemannerinwhichspeechsoundsareorganizedandcombinedintomeaningfulunits whicharethencombinedtoformsyllables wordsandsentences Soundsarechosentobecombinedindifferentlanguages numberandtype 43 Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics Theydifferintheirapproachandfocus Phoneticsisofageneralnature itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages howtheyareproduced howtheydifferfromeachother whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess howtheycanbeclassified Phonology ontheotherhand isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication 44 Assimilation aruleforneighbouringsounds Soundsinneighbourhoodmayinfluenceeachother l and r becomesvoicelesswhentheyfollow s p t and k asinslay pray tray andclay Vowelsbecomeabitlongerwhentheyarebeforevoicedconsonants asinlipandlid bitandbid Vowelsbeforeanasalconsonantbecomenasalized e g fan beam 45 Phonologicalrules generalform A B C DNasalizationrule vowel nasal nasalAspirationrule voicelessstop aspirated wordinitiallyandinitiallyinstressedsyllablesSequentialrule asyllablesequence CCC V CCCC Consonantclustersinsyllableinitialpositionmustfollowthefollowingsequence s p t k w r l j Assimilationrules twophonemesbecomeidenticalorsimilarwhenadjacenttoeachother forinstance nasalization devoicing velarization aspiration dentalizationDeletionandepenthesis thedroppingofcertainsoundortheaddingofcertainsound 46 Ruleordering Rulesmustbeappliedaccordingtocertainsequence Forinstance thepluralformofdesk bedandbusfollowsthreerulesinsurfaceoutput a The s appearsaftervoicelesssounds Devoicingruleb The z appearsaftervoicedsoundsBasicformc The z appearsaftersibilantsEpenthesisDevoicing z s voice C Epenthesis sibilant z 47 Ruleordering Theapplicationoftherulesfollowsthesequence epenthesis devoicing desk z bed z b s z N AN A sN AN Adesksbedzb s zIfweapplythedevoicingrulefirst thentheepenthesisrule desk z bed z b s z sN AsN AN A desksbedzb s s 48 Phonemeandallophone Anabstractunitofspeechsoundisaphoneme Itisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits AnditcandistinguishmeaningE g seedanddeedAphonemehasdifferentrealizationsinspeech Thedifferentrealizationsmaketheallophonesofthesamephoneme Forinstance l aredifferentinthewordslapandpull Butthedifferencedoesnotmakedifferentmeaning 49 Minimalpairandminimalset Aphonemecanbecheckedbycomparingtwowordswhicharesimilarinallmembersexceptoneinthesameposition Forinstance manandmen bitandpit seedanddeedWecallthesepairsofwordsasminimalpairs Andthoseingroup likebit pit sit lit fit wit etc asminimalset 50 Distinctivefeatures Aphonemeisdifferentfromanotherforaparticulardifferentfeature wecallthisfeature ormanyotherfeaturesfordistinctionofphonemesasdistinctivefeatures VoicedandVoiceless RoundedandUnrounded3distinctivefeaturesrelatingtotonguebodyfeatures high low and back InterruptedandstridentTenseandlax 51 Complementarydistribution Whentwoormoresoundsneveroccurinanidenticalphonemiccontextorenvironment theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution h and p and pH Allallophonesareindistribution 52 Inwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning Ifitdoes thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes 53 2 4SuprasegmentalFeatures Thefeaturesofspeechontheunitswhicharelargerthanindividualsounds segments Fouraspects syllable stress pitch intonationandtone 54 Syllable Asyllablecontainsacenter whichisloudandhasno littleobstruction Beforethiscentertheremaybethegreaterobstructiontoairflow 3partsofasyllable onset peak codaOpensyllable withoutcodaClosedsyllable withacoda 55 56 SonorityscaleofSyllables Asyllableconsistsofaprominentorsonorouspeak usuallyavowel sometimessurroundedbyconsonantsthatdecreaseinsonoritytowardstheedges Thesonorityscaleisalistofphoneticsegmentsshowingtherelativeresonanceofphoneticsegmentsinrelationtoothersegments obstruents nasals liquids glides vowels 57 SONORITYSCALE 5 VOWELS a i u 4 GLIDES j w 3 LIQUIDS l r 2 NASALS m n N 1 FRICATIVES AFFRICATES STOPS 58 Sonorityscale Thiscanhelpusunderstandthepossiblesequenceinsoundcombination Forexample lkaps 59 Stress Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable Itisarelativenotion Syllableprominence asyllableismoreprominentthanothersinawordorphrasePrimarystressandsecondarystress StresspatternsmakerhythmicunitsinspeechorpoemsStressmaybemeaningful makessyntacticdifference 60 Pitch Pitchdependsonthevibrationofthevocalcords ahighfrequencyofvibrationofasoundmakesithaveahighpitch Achangeinpitchmayproduceavowelmoreloudly andlongerthanothervowels Sostressedsyllableistheresultofpitchheight Pitchpatterns steady rising falling Fallingpitchismorecommoninlanguagethanrisingpitch 61 Intonation Intonation Thepitchdifferencesthatextendoverphoneticunitslargerthanthesyllable Functionsofintonation groupingofwords emphasizingwords differentiatingmeanings 62 Tone Tone differencesinpitchwhichcancausechangesofwordmeaningTonelanguages Chinese stresslanguages English andpitchaccentlanguages Japanese 63 Illustratewithexampleshowsuprasegmentalfeaturescanaffectmeaning 1 ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning suchas importandim port Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompounds isthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress forexample blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird whichisnotnecessarilyblack butablack birdisabirdthatisblack 2 Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns verbsadjectives adverbs etcarepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect Takethesentence Heisdrivingmycar forexample Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis oryours butmine thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed 3 Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation knownasthef