环境交叉科学

CHAPTER ONE Environmental Interrelationships 环境交叉关系 Environmental issue and it s solutions 环境问题 它的解决方案 Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field 环境科学是一个跨学科领域 Because environmental disharmonies occur as a result of the interaction between humans and the natural world we must include both when seeking solutions to environmental problems 由于环境的不和谐发生所造成的人与人之间的互动和自然世界 我们必须既包括在寻求解决环境问题 It is important to have a historical perspective appreciate economic and political realities recognize the role of different social experiences and ethical backgrounds and integrate these with the science that describes the natural world and how we affect it 重要的是有一个历史的角度来看 升值的经济和政治现实 承认的作用不同的社会经验和道德的背景 并把这些与科学 描述自然世界 以及我们如何影响到它 Purpose of this Course Environmental science is intended as a text for a one semester introductory course for students with a wide variety of career goals 环境科学的目的是为文字 以一学期 介绍性课 程 为学生在各种各样的职业目标 They will find it interesting and informative 他们会发现很有 趣 内容翔实 The central theme is interrelatedness 中部的主题是相互关联 No text of this nature can cover all issues in depth 无文字的这种性质可以涵盖所有问题的深度 What we have done is to identify major issues and give appropriate examples that illustrate the complex interaction that are characteristic of all environmental problems 我们所做的是 找出主要问题 并给予适当的例子 说明复杂的相互作用的特点 所有的环境问题 After reading this chapter you should be able to 在阅读本章 你应该能够 Understand why environmental problems are complex and interrelated 理解 为什么环境问题是复杂和相互关联的 Realize that environmental problems involve social political and economic issues not just scientific issues 认识到 环境问 题涉及社会 政治和经济问题 而不仅仅是科学的问题 Understand that acceptable solutions to environmental problems are not often easy to achieve 理解 接受的解决环境问题是 不是经常容易实现的 Understand that all organisms have an impact on their surroundings 了解所有生物体产生影响及其周围地区 Understand what is meant by an ecosystem approach to environmental problem solving 了解什么是生态系统方法对环境问 题的解决 Recognize that different geographic regions have somewhat different environmental problems but the process for resolving them is the same and involves compromise 认识到不同的地理区域有所不同的环境问题 但这一进程为解决这些问题是 相同的 涉及的妥协 The Field of Environmental Science 该领域的环境科学 The Interrelated Nature of Environmental Problems 在相互关联的环境问题 An Ecosystem Approach 生态系统方法 Regional Environmental Concerns 区域环境问题 The Field of Environmental Science Environment the surrounding conditions that affect people and other organism In a broader definition environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime 环境 周围的条件 影响人民和其他有机物 在更广泛的定义 环境就是一切 影响到一个有机体在其生命周期 环境 与某一中心事物有关的周围事物 就是这个中心事物的环境 Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary area of study that includes both applied and theoretical aspects of human impact on the world 环境科学 是一个跨学科的研究 领域 其中包括两个应用和理论方面的人力上对世界的影响 The field of environmental science involves an understanding of scientific principles economic influences and political action 该领域涉及环境科学的理解科学原理 经 济的影响 和政治行动 creating a new interdisciplinary field 创建一个新的学科领域 An environmental decision that may be supportable from a scientific or economic point of view may not be supportable from a political point of view without modification often political decisions relating to the environment may not be supported by economic analysis 环境的决定 可能是支持的 从科学或经济角度来看 可能不会支持的 从政治的角度看 无需修改 往往是政治决定 有关环境可能不支持的经济分析 Environmental problem Environmental Issue is very complex 环境问题是非常复杂的 An ecosystem approach 生态系统方法 The natural world is organized into interrelated units called ecosystems 自然世界是由 相互关联的单位称为生态系统 An ecosystem is a region in which the organisms and the physical environment form interacting unit 生态系统是在该地区的生物和物理环境相互作用的单位 形式 Weather affects plants plants use minerals in the soil and affect animals animals spread plant seeds plants secure the soil and plants evaporate water which affects weather 天气影响植物 植物使用矿物的土壤 并影响到动物 动物传播植物种子 植物保护土壤和植 物蒸发水 影响天气 Ecosystems sometimes have fairly discrete boundaries as is the case with a lake or island 生态系统有时相当离散的边界 如内有一个湖 或岛屿 Sometimes the boundaries are indistinct as in the transition from grassland to desert 有时界限模糊 如在过渡到草原沙漠 Grassland gradually becomes desert depending on the historical pattern of rainfall in an area 草原逐渐成为沙漠根据历史降雨模式的一个地区 An ecosystem approach requires a look at the way the natural world is organized 生态 系统方法需要看的方式 自然世界是有组织的 Where do the rivers flow 哪里的河流 What are the prevailing wind patterns 什么是当前的风的模式 What are the typical plants and animals in the area 什么是典型的植物和动物在该地区 How does human activity affect nature 如何影响人 类活动的性质 The task of an environmental scientist is to recognize and understand the natural interactions that take place and to integrate these with the uses humans must make of the natural world 这项任务的环境科学家是认识和了解自然的相互作用发生 并把这些与人类的使 用必须作出的自然世界 For solving regional environmental issues it s very useful to adopt ecosystem approach 为解决区域环境问题 采取生态系统方法是非常有用的 We present a number of regional vignettes in America to illustrate the complexity and interrelatedness of environmental issues 我们提出了一些区域简介在美国来说明复杂和相互关联的环境 问题 The Wideness North Characteristic wilderness areas with minimal human influence Much of this land is owned by governments not by individuals so government policies have a large effect on what happens in these regions 荒野 以最小的地区的人类影响 这在很大程度上是国有土地由政府 而不是由个人 所以政府的政策有很大的影响 发生在这些地区 The Agricultural Middle characteristic intensive agricultureOriginal natural ecosystems have been replaced by managed agricultural enterprise nonpoint pollution sources pollution that does not have an easily identified point of origin 农业中东特点 集约农业 原始 自然生态系统已 被替换成管理的农业企业 面源污染来源 污染 没有一个容易确定的起点 The Dry West characteristic inadequate rainfall land is of low economic value most of it is still the property of government Population density is low much of the land has a wilderness character 干西特点 雨量不足 土地是经济价值低 大部分仍是政府的财产 人口密度低 大部分土地有一个荒野性质 The Forested West characteristic sufficient rainfall coniferous forests are the dominant vegetation Since most of these areas are not suitable for farmland they have been maintained as forests with some grazing activity in the more open forests timber cutting Environmental interests are concerned about the consequences logging would have on organisms that require mature old growth forests for their survival 森林西特点 足够的降雨 针叶林是主要植被 由于大多数这些领域并不适合农田 他们一直保持着森林与一些放牧 活动 更加开放的森林 木材切割 环境利益是担心伐木的后果会对生物体 需要成熟 原始森林的生存 The Great Lakes and Industrial Northeast characteristic dominated by large metropolitan complexes that generate social and resource needs that are difficult to satisfy A major concern about these pollutants is that they bioaccumulate in the food chain Their major environmental priorities are cleaning up contaminated sites providing more parks and recreation facilities reducing air and water pollution and improving transportation 大湖地区和东北地区产业特点 主要由大都市物产生的社会和资源的需求难以满足 一个主要关注这些污染物是 它 们生物蓄积在食物链中 他们的主要环境优先清理污染的场所 提供更多的公园和康乐设施 减少空气污染和水污染 改善交通 The Diverse South characteristic diverse The South is a microcosm of all the regions previously discussed The petrochemical industry dominates the economies of Texas and Louisiana and forestry and agriculture are significant elements of the economy in other parts of the region Major metropolitan areas thrive and much of the area is linked to the coast either directly or by the Mississippi River and its tributaries The environmental issues faced in the South are as diverse as those in all the other regions Poverty has been a problem in many areas of the South This creates a climate that encourages state and local governments to accept industrial development at the expense of other values Often jobs are more important than the environmental consequences of the jobs low paying jobs are better than no jobs 多样的南方 特点 多样的 南方是一个缩影所有地区以前讨论 石化行业占主导地位的经济得克萨斯州和路易斯安那州 以及林业和农业的重要 组成部分的经济该地区其他地方 主要都市地区茁壮成长 并大部分地区与沿海直接或通过密西西比河及其支流 环 境面临的问题在南方一样多种多样的人的所有其他地区 贫困是一个问题在许多领域的南部地区 这就造成了一 种气氛 鼓励州和地方政府接受的工业发展以牺牲其他价值 通常 工作是更为重要的环境后果的就业机会 低薪工 作总比没有工作 Artificial political boundaries create difficulties in managing environmental problems because most environmental units ecosystems do not coincide with political boundaries Therefore a regional approach to solving environmental problems one that incorporates natural geographic units is ideal Each region of the world has certain environmental issues that are of primary concern because of the mix of population resource use patterns and culture Environmental problems become issues when someone finds a situation offensive This inevitably leads to a confrontation between groups that have different views on what constitutes an environmental problem Many social economic ethical and scientific inputs shape a person s opinions The process of environmental decision making must take all of these inputs into account and arrive at an acceptable compromise Environmental problems are people problems They occur because the uses of natural resources which some people feel are justified result in a diminished environment for others in the region Environmental problems are defined by the person who perceives the problem When perceptions differ conflict occurs Environmental decisions inevitably involve economic considerations because someone is receiving value from the resources being used or someone perceives an economic loss because a use has been withdrawn 人工政治疆界造成困难的管理环境问题 因为大多数单位的环境 生态系统 不符合政治界限 因此 一个区域的办 法来解决环境问题 一个包括自然地域单元 是理想的 世界各地区的具有一定的环境问题 是人们首要关心的 因 为混合的人口 资源利用方式和文化 环境问题成为问题 如果有人认为这种情况的攻势 这就不可避免地导致了群体之间的对抗有不同的意见 什么构成 的环境问题 许多社会 经济 道德 科学投入的塑造一个人的意见 这个过程的环境决策必须考虑所有这些投入的 帐户 并达成一项可接受的妥协 环境问题是人的问题 他们之所以发生 是因为使用的自然资源 其中有些人觉得是合理的 结果在减少环境中的其 他地区 环境问题是界定的人谁认识这个问题 当观念不同 发生冲突 环境决定必然涉及经济方面的考虑 因为有 人正在接受价值的资源正在使用或有人认为的经济损失 因为使用已被撤销 Compromise is the only way to resolve the Environmental conflicts 妥协是解决环境冲突的唯一途径 CHAPTER TWO Interactions Environment and Organisms 环境和生物体间的相互作用 OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter you should be able to Identify the abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem 确定非生物和生物因素的生态系统 Define niche 确定地位 Describe the process of natural selection as it operates to refine the fit between organism habitat and niche 描述自然选择过程中 因为它设有完善适合生物体之间 生境及生态位 Describe predator prey parasite host competitive mutualistic and commensalistic relationships 描述 捕食 寄生宿主 竞争 互生和共生关系 Differentiate between a community and an ecosystem List some of the components of an ecosystem 区 分社会和生态系统 列表的一些组成部分的生态系统 Define the roles of producer herbivore carnivore omnivore and decomposer 定义的作用 生产者 草食动物 肉食动物 杂食 并分解 Describe energy flow in an ecosystem 描述能量流的生态系统 Relate the concepts of food webs and food chains to trophic levels 涉及的概念 食物网和食物链对营养 水平 Explain the cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen carbon and phosphorus through an ecosystem 解释循 环的营养 如氮 碳 磷和通过一个生态系统 1 Ecological Concepts 生态的概念 Ecology is the study of the ways organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings 生态学 是研究生物的方式互相交作用 并与非生物环境 Environment Everything that affects an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment 环境 一切都影响到生物体在其一生是统称为环境 it is useful to subdivide the concept of environment into abiotic nonliving and biotic living factors Abiotic factors can be organized into several broad categories energy nonliving matter and processes that involve the interaction of nonliving matter and energy 它是有用的细分的概念 环境问题纳入生物 nonliving 和生物 生活 的因素 非生物因素可分为几大类 能源 nonliving 事项和程序 涉及的相互作用 nonliving 物质和能 量 Biotic factors include all forms of life with which it interacts 生物因素 包括所有形式的生命与它互动 Limiting Factors A shortage or absence of a key factor restricts the success of the species thus the factor is known as a limiting factor 制约因素 一种短缺或缺乏的一个关键因素限制了成功的物种 从而因 素称为限制性因素 Habitat The habitat of an organism is the space that the organism inhabits the place where it lives its address 生境 栖息地的生物是空间 生物栖息的地方生活 其地址 Niche is the functional role it has in its surroundings its profession 地位 是的职能作用已在其周 边地区 其专业 Composition of an ecosystem 组成一个生态系统 Biotic environment 生物环境 Abiotic environment 非生物环境 Limiting factor A shortage or absence of a key factor restricts the success of the species thus the factor is known as a limiting factor 限制因素 一个短缺或缺乏的一个关键因素限制了成功的物种 从而因素称 为限制性因素 Environment is the home 环境是家庭 Habitat 生境 The habitat of an organism is the space that the organism inhabits the place where it lives its address 人居中心 生境 栖息地的生物是空间 生物栖息的地方生活 其地址 Niche is the functional role it has in its surroundings its profession 地位 是的职能作用已在其周边 地区 其专业 2 The Role of Natural Selection and Evolution 自然选择的作用和演进 Population a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a particular area at a specific time 人 口 一组个人的同一物种居住在某一特定地区在特定时间 Species is a population of organisms in which the individuals are potentially able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring 种 是一个人口的生物体中的个人有可能能够杂交 生产能繁殖的后代 Natural selection is the process that determines which individuals within a species will reproduce and pass their genes to the next generation 自然选择 是的进程 决定个人在一个物种将复制和传递他们 的基因给下一代 Evolution the changes that can be seen in the genes and the characteristic displayed by successive generations of population of organisms over time 进化 变化中可以看出基因和所表现出的特点世世代 代人口的生物体随着时间的推移 Extinction is the loss of an entire species 消 是丧失整个物种 The Mechanism of Natural Selection 自然选择的原理 1 Individuals within a species showed variation some of the variations were very useful and others were not For example individual animals that are part of the same species show color variations Some colors make the animal more conspicuous while others make it less conspicuous 个人显示一个物种变异 的一些变化是非常有益的和其他人没有 例如 个别动物 属于同一物种 的显示颜色的变化 有些颜色使动物更加突出 而其他使其不那么显眼 2 Organisms within a species typically produce many more offspring than can survive This means that there is not enough suitable habitat for all of the offspring to grow to maturity One apple tree may produce hundreds of apples with several seeds in each apple or a pair of rabbits may have three to four litters of offspring each summer with several young in each litter 生物物种内通常产生更多的后代比可以生存 这意味着 没有足够合适的栖息地 所有的子女成长 其中苹果树可能会产生数百个苹果与一些种子在每个苹果 或一对兔可能有 3 至 4 窝后代每年夏天 有几个年轻人在每个垃圾 3 The excess number of individuals results in a struggle for survival Individuals within the population must compete with each other for food space mates or other requirements that are in limited supply If you plant 100 bean seeds in a pot many of them will begin to grow but eventually some will become taller and shade the remaining plants Great homed owls typically produce two young at a time but if food is in short supply the larger of the two young will get the majority of the food 过剩的一些个人的成果在为生存而挣扎 个人的人口必须互相竞争的食品 空间 配偶 或其他要 求 在有限的供应 如果你厂 100 菜豆种子盆栽 其中许多人将开始增长 但最终将成为一些高和遮 荫 其余植物 大穴猫头鹰通常产生两名年轻的时间 但如果粮食供应短缺 较大的两个年轻人将获 得大部分的食物 4 Because of variation among individuals some have a greater chance of surviving and reproducing than others The competition for resources often results in the less fit individuals dying therefore they do not get a chance to reproduce themselves Even if they do not die they may mature more slowly and not be able to reproduce as many times as the more fit members of the species 由于个人之间的变化 一些有较大的机会可以存活和繁殖比别人 在对资源的竞争结果往往不太 适合个人的死亡 因此 他们不会有机会再现自己 即使他们没有死 他们可能更成熟缓慢 无法重 现多次更适合成员的物种 5 As time passes and each generation is subjected to the same process the percentage of individuals showing favorable variations will increase and those having unfavorable variations will decrease Thus the species will become better and better adapted to its environment 随着时间的推移和每一代人受到同样的过程中 所占的百分比显示出良好的个人变化将增加 那些 有不利的变化将减少 因此 物种将变得更好 更好地适应环境 3 Kinds Of Organism Interactions 3 种微生物的相互作用 Predation One common kind of interaction called predation occurs when one animal known as a predator kills and eats another know as the prey 捕食 一是常见的所谓的互动时 就会发生捕食的动物之一 被 称为捕食 杀害和吃另一个 知道的猎物 Competition A second type of interaction between species is competition in which two organisms strive to obtain the same limited resource In the process both organisms are harmed to some extent 竞争 第二类物 种之间的相互作用是竞争的 其中两个生物体努力获得同样的有限资源 在这个过程中 双方都受损 害的生物体在一定程度上 Symbiotic Relationships symbiosis is a close long lasting physical relationship between two different species In other words the two species are usually in physical contact and at least one of them derives some sort of benefit from this contact 共生关系 共生密切 持久 身体之间的关系两个不同的物种 换句话 说 两个物种通常是在身体接触 至少其中之一源于某种受益于这种联系 Parasitism parasitism is a relationship in which one organism known as the parasite lives in or on another organism known as the host from which it derives nourishment 寄生 寄生关系是在哪一个有机体 被称为寄生虫 或生活在另一个有机体 被称为东道主 从它产生的营养 Commensalism one organism benefits while the other is not affected it is called commensalism 共生 一个有机体的好处 而其他没有受到影响 它被称为共生 Mutualism a kind of relationship that is actually beneficial to both species involved This kind of a relationship is called mutualism 互惠 一种关系 实际上是对双方都有利的物种参与 这种关系称为共 生 Intraspecific competition members of the same species compete for resources 种内竞争 成员的同一物种 竞争资源 Interspecific competition competition between organisms of different species 种间竞争 生物体之间的竞 争不同的物种 Competitive exclusion principle no two species can occupy the same ecological niche in the same place at the same time 竞争排斥的原则 没有两个物种可以占用相同的生态位在同一地点同一时间举行 共生关系 Symbiotic relationships Parasitism parasitism is a relationship in which one organism known as the parasite lives in or on another organism known as the host from which it derives nourishment 寄生 寄生关系是在哪一个有机体 被称 为寄生虫 或生活在另一个有机体 被称为东道主 从它产生的营养 Commensalism 共生 Commensalism relationship between organisms in which one organism benefits while the other is not affected it is called commensalism 共生 生物之间的关系在哪一个有机体的好处 而其他没有受到影响 它被 称为共生 Mutualism 共生 Mutualism a kind of relationship that is actually beneficial to both species involved 互惠 一种关系 实际 上是对双方都有利的物种参与 Some relationships are difficult to categorize 一些关系是难以归类 4 community and ecosystem interactions 四社会和生态系统的相互作用 Community is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species of organisms in an area 社区 是一个组合的所有相互作用的人口不同物种的生物体中的一个领域 主要作用的生物 Major Roles of Organisms 生物的主要角色生物的主要角色 Producers are able to make new complex organic material