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第十五章 信息结构和强调 知识结构信息结构 已知信息和新信息 信息中心第十五章 信息结构和强调 被动语态 后移 外位分隔 强调 前移 倒装 部分倒装 全部倒装 分裂 分裂句拟式分裂句存在句 存在句的信息结构存在句的语法特征知识串讲 后移 当我们想表示强调时,通常利用把最好的放在最后这一原则,正如戏剧一样,重要时刻出现时会插入号声,并对准聚光灯,往往出现在戏剧结束时。后移是制造悬念达到高潮的语法手段。后移通常所采用的手段有:变主动动态为被动态,分隔毗邻的部分,还有其他的一些手段。 外位 将重要信息后移的语法手段叫外位,即“用代词形式代替后移部分”。外位部分大都是名词性分句,能够满足尾重的需要。从功能上讲,外位部分可以是主语也可以是宾语;从形式上讲,可以是限定性分句也可以是非限定性分句。在把主语或宾语的分句移到句末中心位置时,我们用it来填补移走的空缺。从语法上来说,it是形式主语或宾语,后移的分句是真正的主语或宾语。主语分句外位见诸于各种句式: SVC To make fun of a disabled man is not funny at all. It is not funny at all to make fun of 8 disabled man. 戏弄残疾人一点都不好笑。 SVO That she should reject your proposal surprised me. It surprised me that she should reject your proposal. 她竟然会拒绝你的求婚,这使我感到吃惊。SVOC To see that their team Started to launch a counterattack made them excited. It made them excited to see that their team started launching a counter attack.看到他们队开始反攻,他们非常激动。SV What his response will be doesnt matter. It doesnt matter what his response will be. 他会作出何种反应,这并不重要。 外位可以是以上例子中的任何一种,但语法上是可以选择的,主要依信息中心是否是分句主语而定。但在某些句子中,外位是有限制的,尤其是主谓结构的句子: lt appeared that he was not paying any attention to my warning. 他似乎并不注意我的提醒。 It seems that the best we can do is leave her alone. 最我们所能稍好的办法似乎应该是让她独自呆着。It is said that Magic Johnson is coming back to the Lakers. 据说神奇的约翰逊将回到湖人队。 It is reported that Nissan is closing down its factories overseas 据报道,尼桑将关闭他在海外的工厂。 如果谓语含有分句,那么,外位是不可能的,如下例: That a neutral person is appointed for the chair is an agreement that they arrived at after months of negotiation. 数月谈判之后他们达成了协议:选一位中立人士当主席。 Where she was at the time of the murder was of major concern to the police that are investigating the case. 对于调查这一案件的警察来说,主要的问题是谋杀发生时她在那里。 宾语分句外位 不论是限定性分句还是非限定性分句,宾语分句的外位通常局限于主一谓一宾一补( svoc)和主一谓一宾一状(SVOA)句型。例如:SVOC He found it annoying that his neighbor kept calling him by the wrong name. 他的邻居总是叫错他们的名字,这令他很烦。 You will find it exciting working with him. 你会发现和他在一起工作非常令人高兴。 I deem it my duty to help her. 我把帮助她看做我的责任。SVOA We took it for granted that Mr. Green would be appointed Keeper of the Crown Jewels.我们理所当然地认为格林先生将被指定为王冠珠宝的看护人。 They tried to put it into my head that he was the right person for the job. 他们试图让我知道他正是适合做这一工作的人。 分隔 分隔只是把分句的某一部分移走。分隔就是把后置修饰语和被修饰的名词分隔开。例如: she is the only girl in my class who can play the fuitar.她是我们班唯一会弹吉他的女孩。About 85 papers were published reporting the results of the experiment.发表了大约85份有关实验结果的报告。The time will come when you regret making this decision.你很快就会后悔作出这一决定。Nixon saw an opportunity in Warsaw to convey a new and more signficant message to Chaina.在华沙,尼克松看准机会向中国传达了新的更为重要的信息。 用分隔表示强调的方法也可以用于带有反身代词的名词,例如: I dont think youre honest yourself.我认为你本人是不诚实的。 Lets get ridof the garbage ourselves.咱们亲自把垃圾弄走。 把后置修饰语与被修饰的名词分隔开有两方面的作用:一方面,把较长的部分移到句末-尾重,以使句子保持平衡;另一方面,把重要的部分移入中心范围-句尾焦点,以强调这一部分。 分隔除了把后置修饰语与被修饰的名词分隔开外,还有其他的形式,其中一种与外位和被动态密切相关: He is believed to have made up his mind to buy the house. 人们认为他已经下定决心要买房子。 The president is reported to have been missing for three days. 据报道,总统已经失踪三天了。 另一种分隔用于比较结构: Joe spent far less time on the work than expected. 乔花在工作上的时间比预期的要少的多。 People in small towns are more fiiendly to strangers than those in big cities. 小城镇的人比大城市的人对陌生人要友好得多。 第三种常用于含有比较意义的句子中,too.to,enough.to,so.as to/that, such.as to/that: She was too shocked at the sight of murder to explain to the police. 她被所看到的杀人场面吓得无法向警察解释清楚。 Do you think you have enough money in your pocket to pay for your dinner. 你认为你口袋里的钱够付餐费吗? He was so excited at the news that he couldnt utter a word. 这一消息使他激动得一句话也说不出来。 He was sch an honest man as far as I am concerned that he would be the last person to commit embezzlement. 在我看来,他是如此的诚实根本不可能犯贪污罪。 其他类型的后移 除了上述三种主要的后移形式外,还有其他几种后移能帮助我们按由弱到强的渐进方式组织信息。例如,借助语法手段颠倒语序,把信息中心后移。试比较: The duke gave my aunt the teapot. -The duke gave the teapot to my aunt. 公爵把茶壶给了我婶婶。 He told all his fiiends this boring story. He told this boring story to all his friends. 他把这一无聊的故事讲给他所有的朋友听。 We will see to it that they appoint a politically neutral person with a clean history as chairman of the committee. 还可以借助词汇手段: My uncle owns this house. This house belongs to my uncle. 这座房子属于我叔叔。 This disease results from malnutrition. Malnutrition results in this disease. 这种病是由营养不良引起的。 这种语义现象叫做“逆向”,那一对词或短语表达的是同一思,但参与者的顺序正好颠倒。 其他的例子还有:buy/sell,behind/in front of,lend/borrow,give/receive,husband/wife,debtor/creditor等,这是一种特殊的颠倒,只需要颠倒参与者的顺序,而无须改变句子结构。例如: John is married to Marry Mary is married to John. His words are at variance with his deeds. His words are at variance his deeds His deeds are at variance with his words.他的行为与他的语言相违背。 The school is far away from my home. My home is far away from the school. 我家离学校很远。 前移 前移是把原来位于句中或句末的部分移至句首,给人一种出其不意的感觉。由于前移是把原来位于句中或句末的部分移至句首,这种语法手段打破了原来的信息流,信息中心也移至句首,这就不可避免地会造成异常,所以前移不可滥用。前移有时是为了先表达主题,也就是无说明要谈论的问题,例如: This man over there people in the vicinity have a very low opinion of 邻近地区的人们对那儿的那个男人评价很低。 That issue I shall return to later in my new book on sexual harassment. 在书的后半部分我将再回过来讨论性骚扰问题。 前移部分在上下文中是有所指的,因此通常与已知信息有关。这种非同寻常的语序是为了制造一种与前面讨论的内容直接相关的感觉,以便给人留下深刻印象,同时,把句尾焦点放在信息的最重要位置。 除此之外,前移还可以把信息焦点从句末移至句首: Into a large crowd of spectators the plane dived.飞机俯冲向观看的人群。 An honest man he used to be.他过去是个诚实的人。 在这种情况下,前移部分传达的是新信息,因此应该作为焦点。前移是强调平行和对比的有效手段,尤其在语言修辞上更为常用。前移可以起到加强平行和对比的效果。 An honest man he has always been and an honest man he will forever be. 他一直是个诚实的人,将来也永远是个诚实的人。 (参Her appearance all admired while her personality few could praise 她的外表使人羡慕,而她的人品却几乎没人称赞。 前移可以是句子的各个语法成分,如宾语,状语,短语动词,谓语的一部分或是补语: A lovely daughter youve got.(宾语)你的女儿真可爱。 Traitor he has become(主补)and traitor we shall call him.(宾补) 他已经成了叛徒,我们将喊他叛徒。 Into the burning house he dashed.(状语)他冲人着火的房子。 He has promised to help us,and help us he will.(谓语的一部分) 他已经许诺帮助我们,他会帮助我们的。 倒装倒装和前移的区别:第一,倒裴是指主谓的颠倒,而前移则不是;第二,前移是把信息中心从句末移至句首,而倒装则根据句子结构前移或后置。倒装的分类:部分倒装:部分倒装只颠倒了主语和操作词韵位置; 全部倒装:主语而谓语部分的位置完全颠倒。 部分倒装 Never have,seen such a rude man.我从未见过如此粗鲁的人。 Hardly had,reached home when it started to rain.我刚到家就开始下雨了。 No sooner had she apologized than he forgave her.她一道歉他就原谅了她。 Not a single page did he read the whole semester.整个假期他一页书也没读。 Under no circumstances ca,you underestimate your rival.你绝不能低估你的对手。 部分倒装常用于以so,neither,nor等开头的省略句中:She enjoys being invited to parties and so does her hushand.她喜欢被邀请去参加晚会,她丈夫也同样。 A:I dont speak French.我不说法语。 B:Neither/Nor do,我也不说。 当前移的状语用only加强语气时,要用部分倒装: Only when you have got a stable job can you marry and start a family. 只有当你有了稳定的工作才能结婚成家。 Only with the help of his children did he manage to pull himself together. 只有在孩子们的帮助下,他才设法振作起来。 全部倒装 Here comes the bus.公共汽车来了。 Up goes the balloon.气球升起来了。 Down came the rain.雨下了起来。 事实上,全部颠倒更常用于正式而具有特殊风格的演讲,文学作品,以及文体写作中: From the upstairs came suppressed moans and muffled sobs. 楼上传来压抑的呜咽声和低沉的抽泣声。 More important, however; is the issue of juvenile delinquency that has troubled thousands of American families. 但是,更为重要的是给美国数千家庭带来麻烦的青少年犯罪问题。 The door burst upon and in rushed a large angry crowd. 门被撞开了,愤怒的人群涌了进来。 分裂 分裂是把句子分成两个分句,通过对比中心的手段突出重要部分,是一种复杂的语法手段。分裂可以分为两种:分裂句,如下例;拟式分裂句,如下列: It is traitor that we shall call him. What we shall call him istraitor.我们将喊他叛徒。 分裂句分裂句是一个特殊的句型:It+ be+被强调部分+that引导的从句,如果被强调的是人,从句也可以由who引导,在正式文体中还可以不用引导词。例如: It is John that you can consult,你可以向约翰讨教。 It is John who(m) you can consuh. It is John you can consult. 分裂句中被强调的部分可以是句子的任何部分。请看下例,注意分裂分句中不同的被强调部分: Pat released the president8 illness to the reporters at the party last night. 派特在昨晚的晚会上向记者们透漏了总统的病情。 It was Pat who released the presidents illness to the reporters. (主语) It was the president.s illness that Pat released to the reporters. (直接宾语) It was to the reporters that Pat released the presidents illness. (间接宾语) It was at the party that Pat released the president8 illness.(地点状语) It was last night that.Pat released the presidents illness.(时间状语) 尽管这种强调比较灵活,但还是有限制的,例如,对动词的强调就不能通过分裂句来实现,例如: It was released that Pat the presidents illness to the reporters. 其他的诸如修饰语,加强状语,评注性状语,连接性状语等都不在被强调的范围: He is an intelligent man.(It is intelligent that, he is a man.) He is a man with a lot of confidence. (It is witholot of confidence that he is a man) He loved his wife very much. (It was very much that he loved his wife.) Frankly, he is teUing the truth. (It is frankly that he is telling the truth). On the contrary, he never failed to keep his word. (It was on the contrary that he never failed to keep his word.) 主语补语也不能作为被强调的中心,尤其当主语补语是形容词短语时: ? It is a beautiful lady that she is. It is beautiful that she is. 分裂通常用于强调主语和宾语,然而也有限制: Someone stole my car last night. It is someone who stole my car last night. Youd better say something when you see her. It is something that youd better say when you see her. 上述两例是不可接受的,someone和something不是信息焦点,对它们的强调就显得牵强。 拟式分裂句 象分裂句一样,拟式分裂句也是把句子分裂成两部分,把已知信息和新信息从结构上分隔开。两者的重要区别在于,拟式分裂句更多的是后移而不是前移,以what.从句做主语,在补语中达到高潮,从而形成句尾焦点: What they want is money,not your life他们要的是钱而不是你的命。What he can do now is (to) apologize to her in person.他现在所能做的就是亲自去向她道歉。 如果把what.从句放到主语补语的位置,就构成了拟式分裂句信息中心前移: To apologize to her in person is what he can do now. A hot shower is what I need most at this moment. 我现在最需要的是洗个热水澡。 注意:不是所有的以wh-开头的单词都有这种功能,通常情况下,用带有定语从句的名词词组来取代wh从句: ? Who you can consult is Mr. Johnson, The person you can sonsult is Mr. Johnson. When school started was approaching. The time when school started was approaching. 存在句 存在句表示存在这一概念。除了其语义价值外,存在句还有传达信息的作用以及独特的句子结构。 存在句的信息结构 存在句可被看作是一种后移手段。一个句子通常是已知信息在前,新信息在后,分别由主语和谓语来传达。一个句子中主语指代不确定的现象是少见的,从信息交流角度来说是不可接受的: ? A grocery is across the street. A big china vase was on a marble-topped table. 人们对这样的句子是不赞成的,我们可以用大家相互都知道的词,如代词,作为句子的开头,把新信息后移,以达到句尾焦点的效果,这样可以避免句子的一开头就给人一种很“突然”的感觉: We have a grocery across the street.马路对面有个杂货店。I found a big china vase on a marble-topped table.我发现在一个大理石桌上放着一个大瓷花瓶。 或用不含任何意义的there来填补空缺: There is a grocery across the street. There was a big china vase on a marble-topped table. there没有任何意义,它的作用就是填补由于缺少已知信息所造成的空缺,为新信息铺平道路。 there没有任何意义,这一点从下列句子中可以得到验证,在下列转换的句子中,there可以省去: There is a grocery across the street. Across the street(there) is agrocery. There was a big china vase on a marble-topped table. On a marble-topped table(there)was a big china vase. 存在句的语法特征 存在句的明显特征之一是,there起着语法主语的作用,而实际上只代表后面作为真正主语的名词词组。存在句中的主谓一致问题在前面第十四章已经详细讨论过,谓语依照主语的意义而定。 存在句中的there要与做状语的there区别开来,请看下例: There is a busl at the stop.停车点有一辆公共汽车。 There is the bus.公共汽车在那儿。 There is a bus there.那儿有一辆公共汽车。 例中用非重读的there做主语,用不确定的名词词组做真正意义上的主语;例中的there须重读,因为它是倒装句中的地点状语;例中有两个there,第一个表示存在,第二个表示地点。 表示存在和表示地点是两个概念,我们通常用具体的场景表示存在,一般通过地点状语来表达,“Whatever is is somewhere,whatever is nowhere is nothing”(Bolinger,1997:99)除了带地
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