《英语段落写作》PPT课件

EnglishParagraphWriting英语段落写作 段落写作 段落是文章内容中具有一个完整意义的外部表现形态 是文章结构的基本单位 段落通常由若干个对一个主要观点展开论述的相互关联的句子组成 但段落并非是句子的随意堆砌 句子内容之间应该具有连贯和逻辑性 段落表达的内容应该是单一的 一个段落只能表达一个意思 而不能把意思上互不相关的句子堆砌在一起 造成段落内容的庞杂错乱 段落表达的内容应该是完整的 一个意思应当尽量集中在一个段落里陈述 最好不要分割成两段或几段 而使段落内容支离破碎 EnglishParagraphWriting 1ParagraphStructure2ParagraphUnity3ParagraphCoherence 段落的整体性 段落的构成 段落的连贯性 1 ParagraphStructure段落的构成 OneEnglishparagraphusuallyincludesthefollowingthreeparts 1 TopicSentence主题句Supporting DevelopingSentence辅助句 支撑句 发展句 3 ConcludingSentence结尾句 Topicsentence主题句 在段落中用于概括段落主旨大意的句子 叫做主题句 一个好的主题句能够准确地表达作者的观点或态度 关于主题的这个观点或态度成为主题思想 controllingidea 主题句限定了在一个单独的段落中所允许讨论的内容 例 主题句Gold apreciousmetal isprizedfortwoimportantcharacteristics 该句中gold是主题词 twoimportantcharacteristics是表达主题思想的关键词 HowtoWriteaGoodTopicSentence Threeessentialpoints 3个要点主题句必须是一个完整的句子 包括一个主语 一个谓语动词 常常还带有其它修饰语 下面的例子中虽然有的包括主题思想 但并不是完整的句子 Fragments Drivingonfreeways Howtoregisterforcollegeclasses Thebenefitsoftelevisiontochildren Revisedsentences Drivingonfreewaysrequiresskillandalertness机敏 Registeringforcollegeclassescanbeafrustratingexperiencefornewstudents Televisionbenefitsyoungchildreninthreemajorways Fragments Drivingonfreeways Howtoregisterforcollegeclasses Thebenefitsoftelevisiontochildren HowtoWriteaGoodTopicSentence Threeessentialpoints 2 主题句由主题词和主题思想的表述两部分构成主题词表明讨论的对象 主题思想的表述部分限制或控制这个主题在一个段落中能够被论述的具体方面 它应该是能够展述主题思想的一个词或一个短语 即关键词 Topicandcontrollingidea Thetopicsentencegivesaparagraphdirectionandpurpose Ittellswhattheparagraphisabout thetopic andhowthewriterwilldevelopthattopic thecontrollingidea 试分析下列的主题句 例1TheWomen sMovementhashadseveraleffectsontheEnglishlanguage 在这个主题句中 表达主题思想的关键词是severaleffects 它规定了谈论的主题和内容 为了论证这个主题思想 作者应提供具体细节或实例来回答这样的问题 WhatreasonsdidIhaveforsayingseveraleffects 有可能列出以下原因 1 IthascreatedMs atitleforwomencomparabletoMr formen 2 TheMovementhaschangedtheendingofseveralcompoundwordsfrom manto person 3 TheMovementisresponsibleforsomenewterms 例2Studentsonthiscampusrecentlyvoicedseveralcomplaints 问题 该主题句中 表达主题思想的关键词是什么 答案 severalcomplaints所以在主题句后 应辅以细节来论证主题思想severalcomplaints 有可能列出下列事实 1 Theyvoiceddissatisfactionwiththecampuslighting 2 Theyexpressedtheirdisgustwiththecafeteriafood 3 Theyprotestedthegradingpoliticsoftheinstructors 例3Smokingcigarettescanbeanexpensivehabit 该主题句中 主题是thehabitofsmokingcigarettes 主题思想是Smokingcigarettescanbeexpensive 在此句中expensive是表示主题思想的关键词 在展开主题句的段落中 应论证吸烟的确是开销较大的一种习惯 下面是一个说明主题展开的段落提纲 1 Cigarettescostaboutseventy fivecents 2 Theaveragesmokersmokestwopacksaday 3 Theannualexpenseforthissmokeris 547 50 4 Thesmokermustalsopayforextracleaningofcarpets furniture andclothes HowtoWriteaGoodTopicSentence 3 由于主题句仅仅提及主题思想 因此只是一种概括性的陈述而不提供具体的细节 它能被段落中其它句子解释 论证或分析 主题句应该对该段落内容进行适当概括和限制 主题句如果太过笼统 就不能包含具体的思想和观点 对段落如何展开缺乏指导和限定 使读者由于内容太空泛而很难确切地知道本段要谈论的内容 主题句如果太具体 读者就会发现作者对这段内容已无发挥 充实的余地 而无法将主题句展开 Whichisagoodtopicsentence 1 Americanfoodisterrible 2 AmericanfoodistastelessandgreasybecauseAmericansusetoomanycanned frozen andprepackagedfoodsandbecauseeverythingisfriedinoilorbutter 3 Americanfoodistastelessandgreasy 1 Americanfoodisterrible 第一句作为主题句不合适 因为句子内容阐述过于笼统和抽象 段落扩展的发挥点不明确 2 AmericanfoodistastelessandgreasybecauseAmericansusetoomanycanned frozen andprepackagedfoodsandbecauseeverythingisfriedinoilorbutter 第二句缺乏概括性的特点 局限于某个具体事务 而在文字和内容上无法再进一步展开 3 Americanfoodistastelessandgreasy 第三句具有概括性的观点 可以通过列举事实 说明理由 补充细节材料 展开段落内容 所以 这是一个比较好的主题句 试分析下面的句子 是否能做主题句 HongKongisfamousforitsdevelopedeconomy highstandardofliving andinterculturalatmosphere 分析 这个句子包含了过多的信息 主体不明确 这会使段落缺乏统一性 句中所阐述的三个部分的内容是互不相关的 不能单独放再单独的一个段落内叙述 而应放在三个段落里写 改写为 HongKongisfamousforitsdevelopedeconomy 就可以成为一个比较好的主题句了 Activity Identifywhichisthetopicsentence 1 Systolicpressure收缩压between140and160indicatesborderlinehypertension 2 Intheusualbloodpressurereading thesystolicmeasurementisgivenfirstandisthehigherofthetwo 3 Systolicpressureistakenwhentheheartiscontractingtopumpblood diastolicpressure舒张压istakenwhentheheartisrestingbetweenbeats 心脏收缩泵血时测得收缩压 心脏舒张时测得舒张压 Activity Identifywhichisthetopicsentence 4 Bloodpressuremeasurementhastwocomponents systolicanddiastolic 5 Normalbloodpressureisasystolicmeasurementof140 andwhenthesystolicpressureis160orhigher thenhypertensionexists HowtoWriteaGoodTopicSentence PositionofTopicSentence 主题句的位置主题句的位置比较灵活 通常位于段首 其优点是开门见山 一目了然 用演绎法写的段落也称 扩张法 就是以概述主题开首 随之辅以细说 即用具体细节或事例来演绎展开主题句中的主题思想 主题句有时也位于段落的中间 这种写作方法常用来比较或对比不同的对象 段中主题句起承上启下 使上下文平衡的作用 HowtoWriteaGoodTopicSentence PositionofTopicSentence 主题句的位置用归纳法写段落也称作 收拢法 从细节出发 最后归纳到段落的中心论点 用此种方法写作时 主题句一般位于段落的末尾 它是依据上文的细节推论出的论点 起到画龙点睛的作用 在有的段落中 主题句甚至不直接写出来 而是通过细节的陈述含蓄地表达出段落的主题思想 是 需有读者意会 尽管主题句可以出现在段落中的任何位置 但对于英语写作的初学者来说 大多数情况下 采用段首主题句的方法进行写作练习 便于扩展和限制全段的写作 是一种行之有效的方法 我们必须明确 主题句无论出现在段落的何处 都必须是段落内容的焦点 即必须涵盖段落其它句子所阐述的论点 Practice Readeachofthefollowingparagraphs Ifyoufindatopicsentence underlineit Paragraph1Changesinthepricesofgoodscancausechangesinproductionandconsumption Productionincreaseswhenthepricesarehigh Asthepricesofgoodsgoup producersmakemoregoodsbecausetheycanmakemoremoneywhentheysellthegoods Ontheotherhand consumptionincrassateswhenthepricesarelow Asthepricesgoodsgodown consumersbuymoregoodsbecauseofthelowprices Paragraph2AlbertEinstein oneoftheworld sgeniuses failedhisuniversityentranceexaminationsonhisfirstattempt WilliamFaulkner oneofAmerican snotedwriters neverfinishedcollegebecausehecouldnotpasshisEnglishcourses SirWinstonChurchill whoisconsideredoneofthemastersoftheEnglishlanguage hadtohavespecialtutoringinEnglishduringelementaryschool Theseexamplesshowthatfailureinschooldoesnotalwayspredictfailureinlife HowtoWriteGoodSupportingSentences 辅助句也称展开句或推展句 辅助句是主题句的延伸 是段落中对主题句进行具体论证的句子 即以具体的和真实的细节对段落主题进行阐述 说明 举证或引申 从而扩展深化主题 学生在英语写作中存在的一个最大的问题常常是在文章中缺乏组走的信息和具体细节来说明或支持段落主题 要写好辅助句 必须注意所有辅助句的阐述都要与主题密切相关 要有充分的论证细节来说明主题思想 保持句子的连贯性 所有的句子都应按其逻辑顺序排列 例MyroommatePaulpossessesthecharacteristicsofagoodstudent Oneofhischaracteristicsisalwaysbeingpreparedforclasses Forexample whenhisphilosophyprofessorassignsaclassdiscussionontheideaofKant 康德 hegoestothelibraryanddoesextensiveresearchonthesubject Inaddition whenhisEnglishinstructorassignsanout of classessay hebringstoclassthefinalcopyofanessaythathehasrevisedseveraltimes 在这个段落中 辅助句以简明和独特的具体实例来论证和展开主题句 而且所有句子都统一于这个主题 Activity Trydevelopingthetopicsentences Illustrateyourpersonalitywithspecificexamples Iamaverysensitiveperson Iamaveryindependentperson IthinkIwouldbeagoodfriend Iamaverysensitiveperson andthat sgoodtoapoint Ifeeleveryoneshouldbeabletofeelorunderstandwhatothersaregoingthrough Butwhenyouhurt cry orareunhappyforpeopleyoudon tknow orforamoviethatisnotreal thenIthinkthat salittletoosensitive That sthewayIam Iamaveryindependentperson Imustdothingsformyself Idon tlikepeopledoingthingsforme orhelpingme orgivingmethings It snotthatIdon tappreciateit becauseIdo Ijustfeelthatwhensomeonedoessomethingforyou youowethem andifthereisonethingIdon tliketofeel it sthatIoweanyoneanything IthinkIwouldbeagoodfriend IwoulddoalmostanythingforsomeoneIlike andwouldshareorgiveanythingIhave I mverycaringandunderstanding Peopletrustmewiththeirsecrets andthey rerightfordoingsobecauseInevertellanysecretthatistoldtome I malwaystheretohelpinanywaythatIcan Allyouhavetodoisask HowtoWriteaGoodConcludingSentence 使用表示段落结尾的转承信号词 如 inconclusion insummary finally inbrief insum toconclude allinall 等 对段落要点加以总结 对主题加以评论 给读者留下深刻的印象 Activity Writeaconcludingsentencebasedonthegivenoutline TopicSentence Therearethreethingsthatwouldmakemethehappiestpersonintheworld BodyPart AhappyfamilylifeAsatisfyingcareerInnerpeaceandsecurityConcludingSentence Inconclusion ifIcouldhaveagoodhomelife achallengingjob andinnerstrength Iwouldbecontentedandsatisfiedwithmylife Practice Finishwritingtheconcludingsentences Producersmakemoregoodswhenpricesarehigh andconsumersbuymoregoodswhenpricesarelow Aspricesgoup producersmakemoregoodsbecausetheycanmakemoremoneyfortheirgoods Aspricesgodown consumersbuymoregoodsbecauseofthelowprices Thisshowsus howchangesinthepricesofgoodscancausechangesinproductionandconsumption Practice Trytoappreciatethefollowingparagraph andidentify 1 Topicsentence 2 Supportingsentences 3 Concludingsentences Ofallthefourseasons Ihaveastrongerpreferenceforspring Springistheseasonwhennaturewakesupfromherlongwintersleep andeverythingstartstogrow Youcanalwayslistenforbirdssinging witnessbutterfliesdancingandwatchbeesbusywithflowers Springisaseasonassociatedwithbeautifullandscape Theskyiscrystalclear soisthewaterwithbeautifulredflowersandlovelygreengrasssurrounding you Springisasoftsong sweetandmelodious WhenIaminabadmood Iwilloccasionallysearchmymemoriesforthenotesofthissong WhenImeetwithdifficulties Isingthesongtofindcomfort nourishment strengthandinspirationinitsgentletune Thatisspring myfavoriteseason dynamicandcolorful whichalwaysfillsmewithjoyandgivesmepeaceofmind keys Ofallthefourseasons Ihaveastrongerpreferenceforspring Springistheseasonwhennaturewakesupfromherlongwintersleep andeverythingstartstogrow Youcanalwayslistenforbirdssinging witnessbutterfliesdancingandwatchbeesbusywithflowers Springisaseasonassociatedwithbeautifullandscape Theskyiscrystalclear soisthewaterwithbeautifulredflowersandlovelygreengrasssurrounding 主题句 you Springisasoftsong sweetandmelodious WhenIaminabadmood Iwilloccasionallysearchmymemoriesforthenotesofthissong WhenImeetwithdifficulties Isingthesongtofindcomfort nourishment strengthandinspirationinitsgentletune Thatisspring myfavoriteseason dynamicandcolorful whichalwaysfillsmewithjoyandgivesmepeaceofmind keys 结尾句 2 2ParagraphUnity 段落的一致性是指文章基于一个统一的主题 段落内容应保持一致 每个段落只能阐述一个中心思想 每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关 那些与主题无关和不能展开论证主题思想的句子应删去 从而形成一个严谨的段落结构 阅读下面段落 并分析段落是否具有一致性 Therearefewplacesintheworldtodaythathavenotbeenspoiledbyindustrialdevelopmentandpollution Theairwebreatheismoreoftenthannotpollutedbythesmokefromfactorychimneysandtheexhaustfumesofmotorvehicles whilechemicalwastepoisonsourrivers lakesandseas Andbycoveringmoreandmoreoftheearth ssurfacewithbuildingsandroads weareerectinghugebarriersofconcretebetweenourselvesandnature Itwouldappearthatwearepurposelycuttingourselvesofffromnatureanddestroyingwildlifeaswedoso 例1 分析例1 这段例文中 所有的句子都是围绕着 我们生存环境被污染 生态环境被破坏 这一主题论述的 具有较好的统一性 例2 Anotherproblemfacinganumberofelderlypeopleislivingonareducedincome Uponretiring oldpeoplemayreceiveapensionfromtheircompanyorSocialSecurityfromthegovernment Theamountoftheirmonthlychecksisoftenhalftheamountthecheckstheyreceivedwhentheywereemployed Suddenly retireesfindthattheycannolongercontinuethelife stylethattheyhadbecomeaccustomedto evenifthatlifestylewasamodestone Manyfind afterpayingtheirmonthlybills thatthere isnomoneyleftforamovieoradinnerout Ofcourse sometimestheycan tgooutbecauseoftheirhealth Maybetheyhavearthritisorrheumatism anditispainfulforthemtomovearound Thiscanalsochangetheirlifestyle Someolderpeople however discoverthatthesmallamountofmoneytheyreceivewillnotevencovertheirmonthlybills Theyrealizewithhorrorthatelectricity atelephone andnourishingfoodareluxuriestheycannolongerafford Theyresorttoshiveringinthedark eatingcatfoodinordertomakeendsmeet Smalley Ruetten 1990 p 17 分析例2 这个段落的主题是 Anotherproblemfacinganumberofelderlypeople 中心思想是 livingonareducedincome 因此 所有的句子都应围绕这个主题 但是在这个段落中 有三个句子并没有讨论这一特定的主题 所以 这些句子应从这个段落中删除 或应在另一个段落中展开 Canyoufindoutthesesentences 三个和主题不相关的句子 Ofcourse sometimestheycan tgooutbecauseoftheirhealth Maybetheyhavearthritis raitis 关节炎 orrheumatism ru m tiz m 风湿病 anditispainfulforthemtomovearound Thiscanalsochangetheirlifestyle Activity Identifywhetherthefollowingparagraphsareunified Pickoutanysentencewhichisnotrelatedtothecontrollingideaoftheparagraph Forhundredsofyears manhasmadeuseofthetalentsofmonkeys AncientEgyptianpaintingsshowbaboons狒狒gatheringfruitfortheirmasters Evenin1879 inAbyssinia monkeyswerestillbeingusedastorchbearers持火炬者atfeasts Themonkeyswouldsitinarowonabenchandholdthelightsuntiltheguestswenthome Thenthemonkeyswouldeat Mostoftheworld szooscontainavarietyofmonkeysforpeopletowatch Whichisnottalent Monkey stalents baboonsgatheringfruitMonkeysbeingusedastorchbearersMonkeysinzooforpeopletowatch 下面是论述同一题目的两个段落 试比较哪个段落具有整体性 Progressisgraduallybeingmadeinthefightagainstcancer Intheearly1900s fewcancerpatientshadanyhopeoflong termsurvival Inthe1930s lessthanoneinfivecancervictimslivedmorethanfiveyears Inthe1950s theratiowasoneinfour Currently theratioisdowntooneinthree Thegainfromoneinfourtooneinthreerepresentsabout58 000livessavedeachyear Paragraph1 Paragraph2 Progressisgraduallybeingmadeinthefightagainstcancer Intheearly1900s fewcancerpatientshadanyhopeoflong termsurvival Butbecauseofadvancesinmedicaltechnology progresshasbeenmadesothatcurrentlyoneinthreecancerpatientssurvives Ithasbeenproventhatsmokingisadirectcauseoflungcancer However thebattlehasnotyetbeenwon Althoughcuresforsomeformsofcancerhavebeendiscovered otherformsofcancerarestillincreasingHeartdiseaseisalsoincreasing 分析结果 这两个段落都是讨论关于 survivingcancer 问题的 两段的主题句相同 且均位于段首 第一段例文阐明主题句之后 用连续直叙的方法展述 并用三个辅助句以具体事实对其观点进行论证 结论句在前面展述的基础上进行总结 并与主题句相呼应 整个段落紧扣主题 结构层次清楚 具有同一性 在第二段例文中 并不是每个句子都紧扣主题 破坏了段落内容的整体性 段落显得缺乏统一性 是不可取的 3ParagraphCoherence Coherenceinaparagraphreferstothewaythesentencesarearrangedandtotheirrelationshiptooneanother Whenaparagraphiscoherent thesentencesarearrangedinaclearandlogicalorder thetransitionsaresmoothandnatural andideasflowsmoothlyandgracefullyfromonesentencetothenext Asaresult thereaderfindsiteasytofollowthewriter s 段落的连贯性 trainofthought 3ParagraphCoherence cohere表示 tostick 或 toholdtogether 连贯 一是指结构上的连贯 二是指内容上的连贯 也就是文章的结构层次和连接应按照一定的逻辑顺序编排 在一个句子衔接下个句子时或是一个段落连接下个段落时 必须合乎逻辑 连贯紧凑 不应有跳跃 这样句子或段落衔接自然流畅 文章层次分明 脉络清晰 读者就会比较容易跟随作者的思路深入理解写作内容 3ParagraphCoherence 两种保持段落连贯性的方法 第一 用转承词语或称转承信号词表明一个意思是怎样与下一个意思相连的 Transitionsignals第二 按照一定的逻辑顺序排列句子 采用何种逻辑顺序应取决于文章的主体和写作目的 最常用的逻辑顺序是时间顺序 空间顺序和主次顺序 LogicalorderChronologicalOrder时间顺序SpatialOrder空间顺序OrderofImportance重要性次序 Transitionsignalsarewordssuchasfirst second next finally therefore andhowever orphrasessuchasinconclusion ontheotherhand andasaresult Thinkoftransitionsignalsastrafficsignsthattellyourreaderwhentogoforward turn slowdown andstop Inotherwords theytellthereaderwhenyouaregivingasimilaridea similarly moreover furthermore inaddition anoppositeidea ontheotherhand however incontrast anexample forexample aresult asaresult oraconclusion inconclusion TransitionSignals转承信号词 Herearesomeofthemostcommontransitionalwordsandphrasesandtherelationshipstheyshow 转承词是保持段落连贯的一个重要方法 转承词与像桥梁一样把一个句子的意思同里一个句子连接起来 转承词与是用于指示写作方向的词语 告诉读者 作者在什么时候阐述一个相同的意思 什么时候阐述一个相反的意思 什么时候举例 什么时候给出结果或结论 因此运用转承词与不仅能使行文连贯 而且能指导读者跟随作者的思路进行阅读 清楚地掌握该短的脉络 toshowaddition and too also again aswellas besides inaddition moreover further furthermore both and notonly butalso Toshowconcession although though eventhough evenif inspiteof despite naturally ofcourse Toshowtimesequence once before after afterward always when atonce assoonas tobeginwith first second third inthemeantime inthepast future later then next until atlast finally eventually fromthenon sincethenand again first second third Toshowplace infrontof ontheotherside behind inside outside nearby nextto opposite beyond below under atthispoint Toshowresult so thus hence asaresult forthisreason consequently accordingly therefore allinall altogether finally inbrief inconclusion inshort insummary tosummarize Tocompare similarly inthesameway likewise Tocontrast however incontrast instead nevertheless然而 notwithstanding虽然 onthecontrary ontheotherhand otherwise否则 Toillustrateorexplain forexample forinstance namely inparticular尤其 suchas thatis toillustrate说明 显示 Toemphasize indeed infact aboveall ofcourse unquestionably mostimportant lastbutnotleast specifically Tosummarize inbrief inotherwords inshort ashasbeensaid onthewhole tosumup inconclusion Practice Readthefollowingparagraphandidentifythetransitionalwordsinit Nowadays underthenewtuitionsystem anincreasingnumberofstudents especiallythosepoverty strickenstudents nowseemtobedefeatedbythecrushingtuitionburden Therefore manypeoplecomplainthatthenewtuitionsystemkeepspoverty strickenstudentsawayfromcollege However inmyopinion thenewtuitionsystemdoesaddmuchdifficultiestothepoorstudentsbutitwillnever especially Therefore However but keepsthemawayfromcollege First incarryingoutthenewtuitionsystem thegovernmentalshouldprovidesomespecialpolicyforpoorstudent Besides theyareentitledtotakealoanfrombanksordosomepart timejobsduringtheirsparetime suchasweekendsandholidays Finally theycantrytowinscholarshipbyadditionalefforts Inshort manproposes andGoddisposes Noonewillbekeptoutofcollegeduetofinancialburdenunlessheisdefeatedbyhimself First Besides suchas Finally Inshort unless Pleaseanalyzeandidentifythetransitiondevicesusedinthefollowingparagraph Transitionsarethegluethatholdsaparagraphtogether Thesedevicesleadthereaderfromsentencetosentence smoothingoverthegapsbetweenbyindicatingtherelationshipbetweenthesentences Ifthisglueismissing theparagraphwillalmostinevitablysoundchoppyorchildish evenifeverysentenceinitrespondstoasingletopiccommitment However transitionsarenotsubstitutesfortopicunity likemostglue theyaremosteffectivewhenjoiningsimilarobjects or inthiscase similarideas Forexample inaparagraphdescribingachickenegg notransitioncouldbridgethegapcreatedbytheinclusionofasentenceconcernedwithnavallossesintheCivilWar Inotherwords transitionscancallattentiontothetopicrelationshipsbetweensentences buttheycannotcreatethoserelationships Practice Readthefollowingparagraphscarefullyandanswerquestions Whatistheprimarymethodusedtoarrangedetails timeorder spatialorder ororderofimportance Practice Inmy25yearsasasecretary Ihavehadtomasterthreedifferentkindsofwritingmachines Ibeganmycareeronthemanualtypewriter Isoonlearnedtohandleitefficientlyandtypedbetweensixty fiveandseventywordsperminute Thentenyearslater Ifoundmyselfbeingforcedtoadapttoanelectrictypewr