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AnIntroductiontoResearchTechniquesAresearchpaperpresentstheresultsofyourinvestigationsonaselectedtopic.Basedonyourownthoughtsandthefactsandideasyouhavegatheredfromavarietyofsources,aresearchpaperisacreationthatisuniquelyyours.Theexperienceofgathering,interpreting,anddocumentinginformation,developingandorganizingideasandconclusions,andcommunicatingthemclearlywillprovetobeanimportantandsatisfyingpartofyoureducation.Therearemanyapproachestoresearchanessentialpartofeverybusinessandprofessionandmanywaystodocumentfindings.Thelibraryhasbookswhichwillhelpyou,andmostEnglishcompositiontextbookscontainchaptersonresearchtechniquesandstyle.Itisimportanttofollowconsistentlyandaccuratelyarecommendedformatthatisclearandconciseandthathasbeenapprovedbyyourteacher.GATHERINGMATERIALSOnceyourtopichasbeenapproved,begintogatherinformationfromauthoritativereferencesources:pertinentbooks,encyclopedias,andarticlesinmagazines,journals,andmagazines.Librarianswillbehappytoshowyouhowtousethevariousresearchtoolswithinthelibraryandmaysuggestothersourcesofinformation.ImportantnewresourcesarenowavailabletoyouthroughelectronicserviceswhichprovidemanylearningandreferencetoolsaswellasaccesstotheInternet,whereyoucanoftendiscoveranabundanceofinformationTAKINGNOTESAsyouexamineeachsource,makeaseparatenoteofeachfactorquotationyoumightwanttouseinyourpaper.Unlessyouarereallygoodatmanipulatingtextwithyourcomputerorlaptop,itmightbewisetouseindexcardswhenpreparingnotes.Besuretoidentifythesourceoftheinformationonthelisting(includetheauthorsnameandpagenumberonwhichtheinformationappears).Trytosummarizetheinformationinyourownwords(paraphrasing);usequotationmarksifyoucopytheinformationexactly.(Thisruleshouldapplywhetheryouarecopyingagreatdealofmaterialoronlyaphrase.)Giveeachlistingasimpledescriptiveheading.PREPARINGANDUSINGOUTLINESUsinganoutlinecanhelpyouorganizeyourmaterialandcanalsohelpyoudiscoverconnectionsbetweenpiecesofinformationthatyouwerentawareofwhenyoufirstconceivedtheplanofyourpaper.Itcanalsomakeyouawareofmaterialthatisnotreallyrelevanttothepurposesofyourpaperormaterialthatyouhavecoveredbeforeandshouldthereforeberemoved.AWorkingOutlinemightbeonlyaninformallistoftopicsandsubtopicswhichyouarethinkingofcoveringinyourpaper.Sometimes,however,aninstructormightrequirethataworkingoutlinebesubmittedatthebeginningofyourwork;thenyourinstructormightsuggestwaysinwhichtheworkneedstobefurtherdevelopedorcutback.Yourinstructormightalsoseethatyouretryingtoaccomplishtoomuchortoolittleforthescopeoftheassignmentheorshehasinmind.Theworkingoutlinecanberevisedasyoudiscovernewmaterialandgetnewideasthatoughttogointoyourpaper.Mostwordprocessingprogramshaveoutliningfeatureswithautomaticformattingthatmakeiteasytocreateandreviseoutlines.Itisagoodideatokeepcopiesofoldoutlinesinacomputerfolderincasenewversionsoftheoutlineleadyouinfalsedirectionsthatyouwilllaterhavetoabandon.AFinalOutlineshouldenhancetheorganizationandcoherenceofyourresearchpaper.Instructorssometimesrequirethatafinaloutlinebesubmittedalongwiththefinalversionofyourpaper.Materialthatisnotrelevanttothepurposeofyourpaperasrevealedinyouroutlineshouldbeexcisedfromthepaper;ifportionsofyouroutlineseemweakincomparisontoothers,moreresearchmayberequiredtocreateasenseofbalanceinyourargumentandpresentation.Outlinescanbeorganizedaccordingtoyourpurposes.Areyouattemptingtoshowthechronologyofsomehistoricaldevelopment,thecause-and-effectrelationshipbetweenonephenomenonandanother,theprocessbywhichsomethingisaccomplished,orthelogicofsomeposition?Areyoudefiningoranalyzingsomething?Comparingorcontrastingonethingtoanother?Presentinganargument(onesideorboth)?Inanycase,trytobringrelatedmaterialtogetherundergeneralheadingsandarrangesectionssotheyrelatelogicallytoeachother.Aneffectiveintroductionwillmapoutthejourneyyourreaderisabouttotake,andasatisfactoryconclusionwillwrapupthesequenceofideasinanicepackage.Afinaloutlinecanbewrittenasatopicoutline,inwhichyouuseonlyshortphrasestosuggestideas,orasasentenceoutline,inwhichyouusefullsentences(evenverybriefparagraphs)toshowthedevelopmentofideasmorefully.Ifyourinstructorrequiresanoutline,followconsistentlywhicheverplanheorsheprefers.TheMLAHandbooksuggeststhefollowingdescendingpartsofanoutline:LogicrequiresthatifyouhaveanAinyourpaper,youneedtohaveaB;a1requiresa2,andsoforthWORKINGWITHQUOTATIONSQuotationsthatconstitutefewerthanfivelinesinyourpapershouldbesetoffwithquotationmarks“”andbeincorporatedwithinthenormalflowofyourtext.Formaterialexceedingthatlength,omitthequotationmarksandindentthequotedlanguageoneinchfromyourleft-handmargin.Ifanindentedquotationistakenentirelyfromoneparagraph,thefirstlineshouldbeevenwithalltheotherlinesinthatquotation;however,ifanindentedquotationcomesfromtwoormoreparagraphs,indentthefirstlineofeachparagraphanadditionalone-quarterinch.Ifquotationmarksappearwithinthetextofaquotationthatalreadyhastheusualdouble-quotemarks“”aroundit(aquote-within-a-quote),setoffthatinnerquotationwithsingle-quotemarks.Suchaquote-within-a-quotewithinanindentedquotationismarkedwithdouble-quotemarks.IntheUnitedStates,theusualpracticeistoplaceperiodsandcommasinsidequotationmarks,regardlessoflogic.Otherpunctuationmarksquestionmarks,exclamationmarks,semicolons,andcolonsgowherelogicwoulddictate.Thus,wemightseethefollowingsentencesinapaperaboutRobertFrost:Thefirsttwolinesofthisstanza,Mylittlehorsemustthinkitqueer/Tostopwithoutafarmhousenear,remindusofanurseryrhyme.(Note,also,theslashmark/(withaspaceoneitherside)todenotethepoemsline-break.)Butobservetheplacementofthissemicolon:ThereisahintofthenurseryrhymeinthelineMylittlehorsemustthinkitqueer;however,thepoemthenquicklyturnsdarklyserious.Paycloseattentiontotheplacementofcommasandperiodsintheuseofcitations.Forfurtherhelpwiththeuseofquotationmarks,seetheappropriatesectionintheGuidetoGrammarandWritingandourEnglishfacultysSuggestionsforWritingPapersforLiteratureCourses.YOURRESEARCHPAPERSFORMATRecommendationsherearebasedontheMLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatindividualinstructorsandinstitutionsordepartmentsmayvaryfromtheserecommendationssomewhatandthatitisalwayswisetoconsultwithyourinstructorbeforeformattingandsubmittingyourwork.Paper:Usewhite,twenty-pound,81/2-by11-inchpaper.Erasablepapertendstosmudgeandshouldbeavoidedforafinaldraft.Ifyouprefertouseerasablepaperinthepreparationofyourpaper,submitagoodphotocopytoyourinstructor.Margins:Exceptforpagenumbers(seebelow),leaveone-inchmarginsallaroundthetextofyourpaper-leftside,rightside,andtopandbottom.Paragraphsshouldbeindentedhalfaninch;set-offquotationsshouldbeindentedaninchfromtheleftmargin(fivespacesandtenspaces,respectively,onstandardtypewriters).Spacing:TheMLAGuidesaysthattheresearchpapermustbedouble-spaced,includingquotations,notes,andthelistofworkscited.HeadingandTitle:Yourresearchpaperdoesnotneedatitlepage.Atthetopofthefirstpage,attheleft-handmargin,typeyourname,yourinstructorsname,thecoursenameandnumber,andthedate-allonseparate,double-spacedlines.Thendouble-spaceagainandcenterthetitleaboveyourtext.(Ifyourtitlerequiresmorethanoneline,double-spacebetweenthelines.)Double-spaceagainbeforebeginningyourtext.Thetitleshouldbeneitherunderlinednorwritteninallcapitalletters.Capitalizeonlythefirst,last,andprincipalwordsofthetitle.Titlesmightendwithaquestionmarkoranexclamationmarkifthatisappropriate,butnotinaperiod.Titleswritteninotherlanguagesarecapitalizedandpunctuatedaccordingtodifferentrules,andwritersshouldconsulttheMLAGuideortheirinstructors.PageNumbers:Numberyourpagesconsecutivelythroughoutthemanuscript(includingthefirstpage)intheupperright-handcornerofeachpage,one-halfinchfromthetop.Typeyourlastnamebeforethepagenumber.Mostwordprocessingprogramsprovideforarunninghead,whichyoucansetupasyoucreatetheformatforthepaper,atthesametimeyouareestablishingthingsliketheone-inchmarginsandthedouble-spacing.Thisfeaturemakestheappearanceandconsistencyofthepagenumberingagreatconvenience.Makesurethepage-numberisalwaysaninchfromtheright-handedgeofthepaper(flushwiththeright-handmarginofyourtext)andthatthereisadouble-spacebetweenthepagenumberandthetoplineoftext.Donotusetheabbreviationp.oranyothermarkbeforethepagenumber.TablesandFigures:TablesshouldbelabeledTable,givenanarabicnumeral,andcaptioned(withthosewordsflushtotheleft-handmargin).Othermaterialsuchasphotographs,images,charts,andline-drawingsshouldbelabeledFigureandbeproperlynumberedandcaptioned.Binders:Generally,thesimplerthebetter.Whyspendmoneyongimmicky,unwieldy,slipperybinders,wheninstructorsprefernice,flatstacksofpaperstheycanstuffintotheirbriefcasesandbackpacks?Asimplestapleintheupperleft-handcornerofyourpapershouldsuffice,althoughtheMLAGuidesuggeststhatapaperclipcanberemovedandthisfacilitatesreading(whichsuggeststousthatitsbeenalongtimesincethepeopleatMLAhavehadtodealwithstacksofstudentpapers).Yourinstructorsortheirdepartmentsmayhavetheirownrulesaboutbinders,andyoushouldconsultwiththemaboutthismatter.Samples:Asampleresearchpaper(withembeddedcommentary)isavailableinthePrinciplesofCompositionsectionoftheGuidetoGrammarandWriting.ThesameessayisavailableontheGuidetoGrammarandWritingFormsofCommunicationpageinanAcrobatReader(.pdf)format.ALPHABETICALORDERWhenthereisnoauthorlistedforawork,youstillhavetolistthatworkalphabeticallyinyourWorksCitedpagebyusingthefirstsignificantwordofthetitle.Generally,thatmeansignoringa,an,andthe.TheEncyclopediaofBioethicswouldthusbealphabetizedbythewordEncyclopedia.Puttingpeoplesnamesinalphabeticalorderisdoneonaletter-by-letterbasis.Omittitles(suchasLady,Sir,Sister),degrees(M.D.,Ph.D.),etc.,thatprecedeorfollownames.AsuffixthatisanessentialpartofthenamesuchasJr.,Sr.,oraromannumeralappearsafterthegivenname,precededbyacomma.(Ford,HenryJ.,IIIorPepin,Theophilus,Jr.)Thefollowingnamesareinalphabeticalorder(basedontheMLAHandbook):Beethoven,Ludwigvan(ThevanorvoninDutchorGermannames,ifnotcapitalizedbyfamilyusage,appearsafterthefirstname;ifcapitalized,itappearsbeforethelastnameanddeterminesthealphabeticalorder.)DAnnunzio,GabrieleDanteAlighieri(SomeItaliannamesofthe15thcenturyorbeforearealphabetizedbyfirstname)DArcy,PierredeGaulle,Charles(WithFrenchnames,thedegoesbeforethelastnamewhenthelastnamecontainsonlyonesyllable.SeedeMaupassant,below.)Descartes,RenFord,HenryE.,IIIGarciaLorca,Federico(UsefullsurnamesforSpanishnames.)MacDonald,GeorgeMCarthy,JosephineMcCullers,CarsonMaupassant,GuydeMorris,RobertMorris,WilliamMorrison,ToniPepin,R.E.Pepino,D.Pepin,Theophilus,Jr.Rueda,Lopede(ForSpanishnames,decomesafterthefirstname)Saint-Exupry,AntoinedeSt.Denis,RuthVonBraun,Werner(SeeBeethoven,above.)AWRITERSPRACTICALGUIDETOMLADOCUMENTATIONDocumentationwilltaketwoformsinyourfinalpaper:IntheWorksCitedsection,whereallthesourcesyouveusedshouldbelistedalphabetically,andWithinthetextofyourpaper,whereparenthesesshouldshowyourreaderswhereyoufoundeachpieceofinformationthatyouhaveused.ThesetextualcitationsallowthereadertorefertoyourWorksCitedpage(s)forfurtherinformation.Thisguidecontainsmanyexamplesofthekindsofresourcesthatyoumightuseinaresearchpaper.ItemssetapartinablueboxlikethisoneFortheWorksCitedPageCassatt,Mary.SaraHandingaToytotheBaby.Hill-SteadMuseum,Farmington,CT.showhowthedocumentationforthatparticularkindofresourceshouldlookontheWorksCitedpage.Itemssetapartinaredbox(withadottedborder)likethisIn-textCitationThesculptureentitledFamily,giventothecollegein1991andpermanentlyexhibitedinthecollegesWoodlandStreetlobby,wascarvedfromanenormouscherrytreethatgrewinthesculptorsbackyard(Rosen).showhowthiscitationshouldappearinyourtext.ANoteonFootnotesandEndnotesFootnotes(includingcitationsatthebottomofeachpage)havenotgoneentirelythewayofthedinosaurs.Infactitisironicthatfootnotesweredeclaredoutmodedjustbeforetheeraoftheword-processorswhichmakeusingfootnotessomucheasier.Still,becauseofitsrelativeeaseinbothwritingandreading,parentheticaldocumentationisgreatlypreferredbymostinstructors.Endnotes(gatheringcitationsandreferencelistsattheendofeachchapterorattheendofthepaper)haveenjoyedapopularityamongacademicwriters,primarilybecausetheymakethetransitionfromasubmittedmanuscripttopublishedresourcesomucheasier.Evenso,parentheticaldocumentationhassupplantedbothfootnotesandendnotesinmostacademicdisciplines.Forwritersinsomedisciplines,howevermostnotablyinsomeofthehumanitiesdisciplinessuchasmusic,art,religion,theology,andeven(sometimes)historyfootnotesarestillwidelyinuse.Awisestudentwillcheckwithhisorherinstructortomakesurethatparentheticaldocumentationisanacceptablemethodofcitingresources.Usingeitherfootnotesorendnotes,writersrefertheirreaderstocitationsandreferencelistsbymeansofanumberattheendofasentence,phraseorclausecontainingthelanguageoridearequiringcitation.Thenumberappearsasasuperscript.15Nospaceappearsbetweentheperiodandthesuperscriptnumber.Thereshouldbefourspacesbetweenthelastlineoftextandthefirstfootnoteoneachpage.Footnotesshouldbefirst-lineindentedandsingle-spacedwithadouble-spacebetweeneachfootnote.Ifnecessary,afootnotecanbecarriedintoasubsequentpage.Inthatevent,onthesecondpage,createasolidlinetwospacesbelowthelastlineoftext,includeanotherdouble-spaceandthenfinishthefootnote.Double-spacebeforethenextfootnote.Footnotesandendnotesappearwiththeircorrespondingsuperscriptnumberandarewrittenwiththefirstlineindented.Theauthorsnamewillappearinnormalorder(notreversed),separatedfromtheotherinformationwithacomma.Publicationdata(City:Press,year)appearsinparentheses,andnoperiodisuseduntiltheveryendofthecitation.15RonaldE.Pepin,LiteratureofSatireintheTwelfthCentury(Lewiston:EdwinMellenPress,1988)78.16Christie,JohnS.FathersandVirgins:GarciaMarquezsFaulknerianChronicleofaDeathForetoldLatinAmericanLiteraryReview13.3(Fall1993):21-29.PREPARINGAWORKSCITEDSECTIONOnceyouhavefoundthesourcesyouintendtouse,youwillneedtoidentifythemforyourreader.ForeachBOOKyouuse,writeaseparatelisting(onanindexcardorinsomehandyformatavailableinyourlaptopcomputeroryournotebookwhateverisconvenientandcannotbelost),giving:1.thenameoftheauthororauthors;2.title;3.editor,translator,compiler,ifany;4.edition,ifitisnotthefirst(i.e.,2nded.,rev.ed.);5.placeanddateofthebookspublication;and6.thenameofthebookspublisher.Youmightalsonoteonthislistinghowthissourcewas(orcouldbe)particularlyhelpfulinyourresearch.Forexample:Mumford,Lewis.TheHighwayandtheCity.NewYork:HarcourtBraceandWorld,1963.Pikarsky,M.andChristensen,D.UrbanTransportationPolicyandManagement.Boston:D.C.Heath,1976.Writeaseparatelistingforeacharticlefromamagazineorjournal.Include1.thename(s)oftheauthor(s);2.thetitleofthearticle;3.thetitleoftheperiodical;4.thedateoftheissueinwhichthearticleappears;5.andthepagesonwhichthearticleyouarereferringtoappears.Forexample:Prin,Dinah.Marriageinthe90s.NewYork2June1990:40-45.Youmightalsousereferencebooks,newspapers,electronicresources,audio-visualmaterials,andothersourcesofinformation.Inpreparinglistingsforthosesources,refertoTheWritersPracticalGuidetoDocumentationinthisdocumenttoseethekindsoffactsyoushouldrecordforeach.Ifyouhavetoproduceanannotatedbibliography,alistofresourcesthatincludescommentaryontherelativeusefulnessofeachresource,clickHEREforadviceonthatsubject.ASTATEMENTONPLAGIARISMUsingsomeoneelsesideasorphrasingandrepresentingthoseideasorphrasingasourown,eitheronpurposeorthroughcarelessness,isaseriousoffenseknownasplagiarism.Ideasorphrasingincludeswrittenorspokenmaterial,ofcoursefromwholepapersandparagraphstosentences,and,indeed,phrasesbutitalsoincludesstatistics,labresults,artwork,etc.Someoneelsecanmeanaprofessionalsource,suchasapublishedwriterorcriticinabook,magazine,encyclopedia,orjournal;anelectronicresourcesuchasmaterialwediscoverontheWorldWideWeb;anotherstudentatourschooloranywhereelse;apaper-writingservice(onlineorotherwise)whichofferstosellwrittenpapersforafee.InAPAstyle,thesourcesinapaperarelistedalphabeticallyonaseparatepageheadedReferences.Itfollowsthefinalpageofthetextandisnumbered.Entriesappearinalphabeticalorderaccordingtothelastnameoftheauthor;twoormoreworksbythesameauthorappearinchronologicalorderbydateofpublicationdate.Whentherearetwoormorebooksorarticlesbythesameauthor,repeatthenameoftheauthorineachentry.Whenusingtheexampleshyperlinkedbelow,itisimportanttofollowthesuggestedpatternclosely,eventothespacingofperiods,commas,etc.1.WhatdoesareferencelooklikeforaSINGLE-AUTHORBOOK?(WestHartford,CT)2.WhataboutabookwrittenbyMORETHANONEAUTHOR?(LincolnUniversity,PA)3.WhatifImnotusingafirstedition?(Manchester,CT)4.HowdoIlistanEDITEDVOLUME?(Danby,VT)5.WhathappensifmybookhasNOAUTHOROREDITORlisted?(Whitehead,NH)6.IhaveaSEVERAL-VOLUMEWORKhere.HowdoIlistthat?(Cambridge,MA)7.WhatifImusingaquotethatIdiscoverinaSECONDARYRESOURCE?(Orange,CT)8.IveusedsomeimportantdefinitionsfromareputableDICTIONARY.HowshouldIcitethat?(FortLauderdale,FL)9.IvefoundsomegoodinformationinaDOCTORALDISSERTATION.Howwouldcreateareferenceforthat?(Sandusky,OH)10.WhatstheproperformatforaMagazineorPeriodical?(Colchester,CT)11.IveusedanarticlepublishedinaprestigiousSCHOLARLYJOURNAL.HowwouldIcitethat?(Centreville,Kentucky)12.HowwouldIhandleaNEWSPAPERARTICLE?(Jackson,NJ)13.CanyougivemesomeexamplesofhowtohandleNON-PRINTMATERIALS?(Philadelphia,PA)14.Ihaveimportant,reliableinformationfromPERSONALINTERVIEWSandPHONECONVERSATIONS.HowdoIdocumentthoseresources?(EastHartford,CT)15.MyprofessorjustgaveussomegreatinformationinaCLASSROOMLECTURE.CanIusethat?(Bloomington,IN)16.IhaveseveraldocumentsfromtheGOVERNMENTandERICtolist.Whatstheproperformat?(BucklandHills,CT)17.IhavediscoveredseveralresourcesusingtheINTERNETandCD-ROMRESOURCES.HowdoIdocumentthatmaterial?(Farmington,CT)18.IvebeenaskedtocreateanANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHY.HowdoIgoaboutthat?(anAmericaOnlineuser)Twomajortypesofresearchpapers.Argumentativeresearchpaper:Theargumentativeresearchpaperconsistsofanintroductioninwhichthewriterclearlyintroducesthetopicandinformshisaudienceexactlywhichstanceheintendstotake;thisstanceisoftenidentifiedasthethesisstatement.Animportantgoaloftheargumentativeresearchpaperispersuasion,whichmeansthetopicchosenshouldbedebatableorcontroversial.Forexample,itwouldbedifficultforastudenttosuc
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