乡镇卫生院依法执业与医疗安全

Chapter 4 Syntax （句法学）Syntax is the study of the part of the human linguistic system that determines how sentences are put together out of words, or, in another word, how are words put together to form a sentence?Syntax has something to do with our knowledge of grammatical function of each part of a sentence and with speakers ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.,Syntax is the study of how sentences are structured, formed; or in other words, it tries to state what words can be combined with others to form sentences and in what order.（句法学研究句子中词的排列，还研究词与词之间是以什么方式表现出来的，如词序或曲折变化。）4.1 Sentence Structure How is a sentence structured? One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is the division of a sentence into phrases, and those phrases into further phrases, and so forth.,Another aspect of the syntactic structure of a sentence is “movement” relations that hold between one syntactic position in a sentence and another.The syntactic literature dealing with the study of how sentences are structured throws us a hint that syntactic research should not only concentrate on how sentences are merged out of their parts, units, or constituents, but also on how constituents are moved according to certain rules.,4.1.1 ConstituentsA few concepts: immediate constituent（直接成分） a. Constituent (构成成分) ultimate constituent （最终成分） b. Immediate constituent: Can be further segmented until we obtain the smallest grammatical units. c. Ultimate constituent: The smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation.,d. Construction (结构): It is composed of constituents and is able to be segmented. Or: It is a relationship between constituents.（词内的词素，句子内的词组合起来的过程或结果。）IC Analysis (直接成分分析法): to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. （把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位又称最终成分词素。） (Look at the first few paragraphs under 4.1.1),In another word, the segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is an important approach to the realization of the nature of language, called Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis).The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams (树形法），bracketing (括号法）, upright lines（竖线法）, or any other. (Look at the examples on P. 98-99.),The advantage of IC Analysis lies in its function that not only shows linear relationship, but also hierarchical ones. (不仅能够表明句中词的线性排列，还能在形式上划分句子的层次，表现出句子的层次性结构。） Another advantage of IC Analysis: It helps to account for the ambiguity of certain constructions. For example: old men and women old men and women,A disadvantage of IC Analysis: In the actual analysis, we shall find either ultimate or intermediate constituents whose component parts are separated by a string of one or more forms. In this way, there will be a problem as to where to make the next cut. This is called discontinuity and such constituents are called discontinuous constituents （非连续成分）. e.g. lookup, bringin, helpout, look forward to, etc.,直接成分分析法把话语一直分到词素，忽略了词和习语作为词汇单位的整体作用。如：lookup, bringin, helpout, look forward to, 三长两短，七上八下，如果切分到词素，就会忽视习语的整体意义，从而破坏语义的完整性。 ( Have a brief discussion on the exercises on P. 100.),4.1.2 Sentence TypesSentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of basic structural patterns and through certain processes involving the expansion of these basic patterns.Each of the longer sentences of a language is structured in the same way as one of a relatively small number of short sentences which are impossible to reduce to a short form.,These short sentences have the basic sentence types.There are different ways in dealing with sentence types.4.1.2.1 Structural ApproachAccording to their structures and forms, sentences can be divided into simple sentences, coordinate or compound sentences (并列句), and complex sentences (复合句).,In terms of the linear order of constituents, English has seven basic clause types:SVSomeone was laughing; Tom is coming.SVOMy sister enjoys parties; I like English.SVCThey became angry; He is clever.SVAI went to New York; They work hard.SVOOMary gave John a book. The old man teaches us chemistry.SVOCMost people consider the book expensive. We found Jane an honest girl.SVOAYou must put the toy downstairs. She did her homework carelessly.,4.1.2.2 Functional ApproachAccording to their discourse functions, English sentences are usually classified into four types: declarative (陈述句), interrogative (疑问句), imperative (祈使句), and exclamatory (感叹句).Associated with the four sentence types are four classes of discourse functions. Statements are primarily used to convey information, questions are primarily used to seek information on a specific point, directives are used to instruct somebody to do something, and exclamations are used for expressing the extent to which the speaker feel about or is impressed by something.,However, their relations are not fixed. For example, a statement can be used to make an assertion (主张)，, to make a prediction, or to offer an apology.Assertion, prediction, and apology are pragmatic categories that indicate how sentences are used in actual utterances.,4.1.2.3 Communicative ApproachIn order to account for single free utterances in communication and to separate them into their different kinds, Fries isolates those stretches of speech that are bounded by the speaker and calls them “utterance units”.However, speech forms involve not only the situations in which they usually occur but also the regular responses which they produce.,According to their communicative functions, Fries introduces two types of utterances in which responses are elicited:1. Communicative utterances, which can elicit three kinds of responses: i) Utterances regularly eliciting “oral” responses only, such as greetings, calls, and questions. ii) Utterances regularly eliciting “action” responses, sometimes accompanied by one of the limited oral responses, such as requests and commands. iii) Utterances regularly eliciting conventional signals of attention to continuous discourse, such as statements.,2. Non-communicative utterances, which have some “meaning” in the sense that they are usually associated with particular situations.They do not elicit regular predictable responses. Utterances characteristic of situations may carry the meaning of surprise, sudden pain, prolonged pain, disgust, anger, sorrow, etc. For example, oh; wow; oh, my god, and goodness are usually uttered in situations in which surprise is an important element. ( Look briefly at the exercises on P. 103.),4.2 Syntactic Function and Category（范畴） (P. 104)The syntactic function clarifies the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.The function is labeled in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers, complements, etc.Besides its traditional interpretation of part of speech, the term of category is somewhat theoretical and philosophical. There is a strong tie between syntactic function and category.,4.2.1 Syntactic FunctionThe traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes the inflection involved, and explains the relationship each word related to the others.There are five functional categories of clause constituents: subject, verb, object, complement, and adverbial.,Object can be subdivided into direct object and indirect object. Complement can be subdivided into subject complement and object complement. Adverbial can be subdivided into subject-related adverbial and object-related adverbial.A subordinate clause may function as subject, object, complement, or adverbial in a super-ordinate clause. ( Look at the examples at the bottom of P. 104.),4.2.1.1 Subject (P. 105)Semantically, subject refers to the noun which serves as the doer or agent of the action. However, this cannot explain some sentences satisfactorily, e.g. sentences in passive voice.Normally, the grammatical subject in English can govern the predicate in terms of person, number, and tense, and can be checked by a tag-question.,From a functional point of view, subject is what the speaker is talking about. It plays an important role in helping convey the interpersonal meaning of the cause.4.2.1.2 PredicateIn the most basic subject-predicate sentence, the subject is that which the sentence is about, and the predicate is what says something about the subject. (谓语是除了主语以外的整个部分。） ( Look at the explanation and example on P. 106.),Be careful not to confuse predicates with verbs or predicators (谓词).According to Halliday, the predicator has four functions: 1) It specifies time reference other than reference to the time of the speech event, i.e. “secondary” tense: past, present or future; 2) It specifies various other aspects and phrases like seeming, trying, hoping, etc. 3) It specifies the voice: active or passive; 4) It specifies the progress (action, event, mental process, behavior, relation or existence).,This can be exemplified by a verbal group. E.g. “has been trying to be heard ” which expresses (1) a complex secondary tense, been +-ing; (2) a conative （意动的）phrase, try + to; (3) passive voice, be+-d; (4) the mental process, hear.4.2.1.3 ObjectGrammar usually considers the object argument of a transitive verb. A transitive verb is in turn characterized as a verb that can take a direct object and an intransitive verb as one that does not.,The noun, pronoun, noun phrase or clause can function as the object of a verb. The object can become subject in a passive construction.According to Jespersen, objects can be used to express various types of meanings, such as the results of actions (He built a house) or the instruments of actions (Jane nodded her head). ( Discuss the exercises at the bottom of P. 107.),4.2.2 CategoryCategory in syntax refers to classes and functions, noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.In this sense, a syntactic category refers to a word, a phrase or a clause that performs a particular grammatical function, such as subject in a sentence.According to Lyons, there are three kinds of categories.,1. Primary grammatical categories: parts of speech.2. Secondary grammatical categories: number, gender, tense, mood, case, person, concord (一致），government （支配关系）, etc.3. Functional categories: the traditional syntactic notions of “subject”, “predicate”, “object”, etc. In this section, we shall mainly deal with the secondary grammatical categories.,4.2.2.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category for the analysis of such contrasts as singular and plural of certain word classes.In English, number is a feature of nouns and verbs.4.2.2.2 GenderGender demonstrates such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter, animate and inanimate, etc. for the analysis of certain word classes.,In some languages, grammatical gender had little to do with the biological sex. For example, the “moon” in French is grammatically feminine, while in German a “girl” is grammatically neuter.English gender contrast is mostly of the natural gender kind, and is usually reflected in pronouns and a small number of nouns. For example, he for masculine, she for feminine, and it for neuter.,4.2.2.3 CaseThe case category is often used in the analysis to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.In English, the genitive case can be marked by inflection (s) or a prepositional phrase (of.) . For example, a boys shirt, Toms pen, a picture of the girl, a map of China. ( c.f. a friend of my mothers; a friend of mine),4.2.2.4 Concord (一致关系) and Government (支配关系)The forms of words can be restricted by grammatical categories through concord or agreement and through government. A verb is to agree with the subject in person and in number. In English, this rule only affects the verb according to the number of the subject. (e.g. The boy goes to school. The boys go to school.),The idea of government is necessary in languages like Latin and German to account for the way in which certain prepositions and verbs determine the case of nouns.In English, prepositions and verbs require or restrict particular forms of the paradigms (聚合体，词形变化) of pronouns according to the syntactic relation between them. (e.g. I must learn from them. They pleased me the other day.),*4.2.2.5 Tense and Aspect (时态与体态)The category of tense has to do with time-relations and relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance (the time utterance being “now”).Tense is therefore a deictic (指示成分) category, and is simultaneously a property of the sentence and the utterance.,The category of tense can be expressed by systematic grammatical contrasts.Three contrasts are recognized by traditional grammarians in the analysis of Greek and Latin: “past”, “present”, and “future”.The term aspect was first used to refer to the distinction of “perfective” and “imperfective” in the inflection of verbs in Russian and other Slavonic (斯拉夫语) languages.,English has two aspects which combine fairly freely with tense and mood: the “perfect” and the “progressive”. They also combine with one another. (e.g. I have/had read the book. I will/would have read the book. I am/was reading the book. I will/would be reading the book. I have/had been reading the book. ),There are a number of other aspectual distinctions in English of more limited distribution, including the “habitual”, which occurs only with the past tense (e.g. I used to read.) and the “mutative”, which is restricted to the passive (e.g. He got killed.).A grammatical category is a class of expressions that share a common set of grammatical properties. For example, English words like girl, idea, school, team, etc. belong to the grammatical category noun, because they all share certain grammatical properties in common.,All those nouns in English share the morphological property of having a plural form, and the syntactic property of being able to be pre-modified by articles a, an or the .4.3 Transformational Rules Syntax is seen to be a fundamental principle for encoding and decoding meaning and is the part of grammar shared by speakers and listeners in communication.,In 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed the transformational-generative grammar (TG)(转换生成语法), thus providing a model for the description of human languages.The goal of TG is to find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences.It is called “transformational-generative” grammar because it attempts to do the following:,To provide the rules that can be used to generate grammatical sentences to show how basic sentences can be transformed into either synonymous phrases or more complex sentences.Chomsky puts forth the Standard Theory, which comprises 4 parts: the base component, the transformational component, the phonological component, and the semantic component.Since then, the theory has been revised several times.,Chomskys TG: A. More interested in the similarities between languages rather than differences, or try to find a grammatical framework suitable for all languages. （结构语法只描写语言现象，是“发现程序”；而TG则是制定规则，“评价程序”，研究句子的生成和转换。） B. Concentrates on finding elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather than on elements that actually occur in all languages. （找出所有语言共有的要素和结构，而不是描写语言现象的 “发现程序”。）,C. Discovers universal constrains on the ways in which linguistic elements can be combined. (找出通用的构成语言成分的制约、规约，研究生 成句子包括可能生成的句子的能力。)4.3.1 Deep Structure and Surface Structure (深层和表层结构 )In TG, every sentence has two levels, one which is obvious on the surface and the other which is deep and abstract. The structure of the sentence as it is pronounced or written is called the surface structure.,The structure that contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence is called the deep structure. For example: Flying planes can be dangerous. 这是一个多义结构，可解释为：The action of flying planes can be dangerous. 驾驶飞机是危险的。Planes that fly can be dangerous. 飞着的飞机是危险的。前者中的 flying planes 是动宾词组，后者中的flying planes是偏正词组。,More examples:a. The professors appointment was shocking.b. Mary and Bill or John sent the gift.c. The horse is ready to ride.d. Old men and women are hard to live with. 以上句中的表层结构（词语和词序）相同，但语义却不同，既同一个表层结构，有两个深层结构。,4.3.1.1 Deep structure and Surface StructureDeep structure is the abstract structure and can be said to be the propositional （命题的）core of the sentence. Deep structure shows the basic form of a sentence with all the necessary information to derive a well-formed sentence, and to give it a phonological representation and a semantic interpretation.,Deep structure reveals the underlying structure of a linguistic utterance and specifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements as well as the linguistic meaning of the constituents.We all have a mental blueprint for the construction of well-formed sentences as part our linguistic competence.Deep structure is like that blueprint. Idealized sentences are generated from this blueprint by phrase structure rules.,Part of our linguistic competence consists of a transformational component which allows to move constituents along to create a package of sentences.Surface structure is output of that component and the input for the phonological component.Surface structure is the actual produced structure. It is the directl